The Interwar Period: Post-War Crisis and the Great Depression
The Interwar Period
The Period 1919-1929
The period between the end of the First World War and the crash of the New York Stock Exchange was fraught with contradictions. On the one hand, the end of the war did not end the suffering of Europeans engaged in the reconstruction of their economies. Furthermore, the United States began a cycle of expansion which led to unprecedented prosperity. However, this apparent prosperity was not without its ambiguities. The U.S. growth cycle was broken abruptly at
Read MoreAncient Greek Art and Architecture: Sculptures and Temples
Kouros and Kore Sculptures
1) Interpretation
Kouros: Renderings of gods, athletes, or memorials to deceased individuals. The Anavyssos Kouros is a funeral sculpture of a young man named Kroisos. The inscription reads: “Stand and mourn at the tomb of the deceased Kroisos, whom the raging Ares destroyed one day as he fought in the foremost ranks.” Usually, they do not refer to any specific person. The bodies are depicted naturally, nude, as were athletes in competitions. The smile is timeless, a sign
Read MoreThe Catholic Monarchs: Unification, Expansion, and the New World
The Reign of the Catholic Monarchs: Territorial Unification and Overseas Expansion
The Conquest of Granada and Incorporation of Navarre
The Nazari Kingdom of Granada was the last Islamic stronghold in the Iberian Peninsula after the major Christian conquests of the 13th century. It encompassed much of modern-day Málaga, Granada, and Almería. Its independence was maintained through substantial gold payments to the Christian kingdoms. Driven by a desire for national unity, religious uniformity, and
Read MoreThe Spanish Restoration: 1875-1923
The pronouncement of Martinez Campos accelerated the accession to the throne of Alfonso XII and thus the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy. The crisis of 1902 began in the reign of Alfonso XIII and finally ended with the proclamation of the Second Republic.
1. Introduction
The architect of the return of the Bourbons to the Spanish crown was Canovas del Castillo, since he paved the way by obtaining the abdication of Queen Isabella II in favor of her son Alfonso and drafted a manifesto in favor of
Read MoreIsabel II and the Democratic Sexenio: A Reign in Spain
The Reign of Isabel II
The Regency: First Phase (1833-1843)
The reign began with the so-called inheritance conflict that arose following the death of her father, Ferdinand VII. Isabel was born in 1830, meaning she was a child when the king fell ill in 1832 and was raised for succession. According to Salic law, women could not reign, but Ferdinand nullified this with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1830. He named his wife Maria Cristina regent and forced the courts to swear to his daughter Isabel as successor.
Read MoreRussian Revolutions and the Rise of the Soviet Union
Read More1. Imperial Russia and Early Opposition
1.1. Tsarist Autocracy and Social Structure
Imperial Russia remained under an absolute monarchy ruled by Tsar Nicholas II. The majority of the population lived in rural poverty, while wealthy peasants (kulaks) acquired land and formed a rural middle class. The liberation of serfs and their migration to cities fueled rapid industrial development.
1.2. Early Opposition Movements
Early opposition to Tsarism was driven by intellectuals. Narodniks (populists) advocated