The Catholic Monarchs: Unification, Expansion, and the New World
The Reign of the Catholic Monarchs: Territorial Unification and Overseas Expansion
The Conquest of Granada and Incorporation of Navarre
The Nazari Kingdom of Granada was the last Islamic stronghold in the Iberian Peninsula after the major Christian conquests of the 13th century. It encompassed much of modern-day Málaga, Granada, and Almería. Its independence was maintained through substantial gold payments to the Christian kingdoms. Driven by a desire for national unity, religious uniformity, and noble enrichment, the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, initiated the conquest of Granada. The war, lasting from 1481 to 1492, was long and arduous. The western part of the kingdom fell first, followed by the fall of Málaga and the eastern territories (Almería). The siege of Granada city commenced from the camp of Santa Fe. The Catholic Monarchs exploited internal conflicts within the Nazari Kingdom between Boabdil and El Zagal. The city surrendered on January 2, 1492. Initially, Muslims were allowed to retain their customs and religion. However, starting in 1500, Cardinal Cisneros implemented a policy of forced conversion to Catholicism. This sparked a major rebellion in the Alpujarras, which was ultimately suppressed. Muslims who refused conversion were expelled, while those who converted became known as Moriscos.
After Isabella’s death, Ferdinand, during his regency of Castile, conquered the Kingdom of Navarre, which had been under French influence during the late Middle Ages. Ferdinand’s claim to Navarre was based on his marriage to Germaine de Foix. Castilian armies, under the command of the Duke of Alba, swiftly advanced from Vitoria, achieving complete occupation of Navarre in 1512. The following year, the Parliament of Navarre recognized Ferdinand as king, in exchange for Castile’s respect for Navarrese institutions, customs, and privileges.
Integration of the Canary Islands and Relations with Portugal
The Canary Islands were a point of contention between Portugal and Castile during the War of the Castilian Succession. The conquest, initiated in 1477 and completed in 1496, was carried out through a system of capitulaciones. Individuals signed contracts with the Crown, whereby newly conquered lands became Crown property under direct royal control, while the individuals received economic benefits. The Canaries became a crucial strategic point on the route to America, the discovery of which was the defining event of the Catholic Monarchs’ reign.
The Catholic Monarchs sought to establish positive relations with Portugal. The Treaty of Alcaçovas-Toledo in 1479 recognized Isabella as Queen of Castile. In exchange, the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs’ eldest daughter to the Portuguese crown was agreed upon. The treaty also defined spheres of influence in the Atlantic: the Canaries were assigned to the Catholic Monarchs, while the Azores, Madeira, and the African coast were assigned to Portugal. Later, the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) further regulated the distribution of influence zones, this time following the discovery of America.
State Organization: Government Institutions
The Catholic Monarchs strengthened existing institutions while preserving territorial jurisdictions. They also established new institutions in each realm, most notably the Inquisition, dedicated to combating heresy, which was the only institution with authority throughout Spain. The role of the corregidor (royal magistrate) was expanded in both kingdoms. The Audiencias (high courts) were expanded and reorganized. Tax reforms were implemented, and numerous accounting systems were created. A customs tax was introduced. A system of diplomats and ambassadors was established. The number of councils increased, particularly the Council of Aragon, while the Cortes (parliaments) were convened less frequently. The positions of Secretary and Viceroy were created. The monarchs also exerted control over the clergy by influencing ecclesiastical appointments and asserted their authority over the nobility.
Foreign Policy: Italy and North Africa
Ferdinand of Aragon maintained the same foreign policy he had pursued in previous years. He confronted France over Naples, leading to a war in which the Great Captain, Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, participated, resulting in a Spanish victory. This defeat of France also led to the recovery of Roussillon and Cerdanya for Aragon and the occupation of Milan.
Meanwhile, Castile, under the pretext of defense against the Turks, initiated conquests in North Africa and the Atlantic. Castile gained control of Ceuta, Melilla, Oran, and Bougie, and established vassalage over Tunis and Algiers. Later, the Canary Islands were further secured, and this expansionist policy culminated in the discovery of America by Columbus.
The Discovery of America
A series of technological advancements (such as the rudder and the compass), economic growth (increased trade), and the search for precious metals contributed to the discovery of America. Christopher Columbus’s proposal was initially rejected by Portugal but accepted by the Catholic Monarchs in Castile, likely due to the recent conquest of Granada. The Capitulations of Santa Fe were signed in April 1492, granting Columbus the titles of Viceroy of the conquered lands, Admiral of the Ocean Sea, and 10% of the profits obtained. Columbus was removed from office in 1502. He set sail with three ships: the Pinta, the Niña, and the Santa Maria. They departed from Palos de la Frontera and landed on an island in the Bahamas, which Columbus named San Salvador, on October 12, 1492. Colonization began, centered on the island of Hispaniola. The Indies were incorporated into the Crown of Castile. Trade was organized through the House of Trade in Seville. Franciscans and Dominicans evangelized the indigenous population, while Portugal protested the Spanish expansion. The Treaty of Tordesillas was signed, establishing an imaginary line 370 leagues west of Cape Verde to divide the newly discovered territories between Spain and Portugal.
Conquest and Colonization of America
The conquest of America primarily took place during the reign of Charles V. Fray Bartolomé de las Casas advocated for the fair treatment of the indigenous population. To justify the conquest, the Spanish emphasized the need to spread the Catholic faith in America. The success of the conquest was based on the capitulación system: the Crown delegated the right of conquest to an individual, who received a significant portion of the spoils in exchange for bearing the costs of the expedition.
Hernán Cortés led the conquest of the Aztec Empire. He departed from Cuba and founded Veracruz. After capturing the Aztec emperor Moctezuma, war broke out with the indigenous population. Cortés was aided by indigenous groups opposed to Aztec rule. Mexico was conquered in 1521, leading to the creation of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. The Viceroyalty later incorporated Yucatan, the center of Mayan civilization.
Francisco Pizarro spearheaded the conquest of Peru. He departed from Panama and headed south to conquer the Inca Empire. He executed the Inca emperor Atahualpa, captured Cuzco, and founded Lima. A bloody civil war ensued between Pizarro and his partner, Diego de Almagro, resulting in the deaths of both. Peace was ultimately achieved with the creation of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Chile was conquered by Pedro de Valdivia. Other expeditions led to the conquest of Florida, Colombia, Venezuela, and Argentina.
In America, land ownership belonged to the Spanish. The indigenous population worked for them. The main economic activities were agriculture, livestock farming, and mining (especially silver). Industry was limited and focused on textiles. The House of Trade in Seville controlled all trade with the Indies. The indigenous population underwent a rapid process of acculturation, adopting the Spanish religion, language, and customs. Intermixing between Spaniards and indigenous people was widespread.