Major Historical Transformations: 1770s-1870s
American Revolution & U.S. Constitution
Tensions Between Colonies and Britain
- Economy
- Raw materials to Britain
- Colonies dependent on British goods
- Enslaved Black labor on plantations
- Trade Monopolies
- Britain controlled trade
- Colonies barred from direct international trade
- Taxation Without Representation
- No representation in Parliament
- Key protests against taxes:
- Stamp Act
- Tea Act
- Key Events
- 1773: Boston Tea Party (protest against Tea Act)
- 1774: Delegates met, grievances listed
- 1776: Declaration of Independence
Spain’s 19th Century: Liberalism, Absolutism, and Social Transformation
War and Liberal Revolution (1808-1814)
The Crisis of Charles IV’s Reign
A year after Charles IV (1788-1808) ascended to the throne, the French Revolution began. The King of Spain joined the international coalition against France, hoping to stop the spread of liberal ideas. However, the French armies defeated Spain (1793-1795). This led to a change of strategy by Manuel Godoy, Charles IV’s prime minister. He made an alliance with Napoleon against England, France’s main enemy. The Treaty of Fontainebleau
Franco’s Unification Decree: Power Consolidation in Civil War Spain
The Unification Decree of 1937: Franco’s Power Consolidation
Introduction to the Unification Decree
This document is a primary source, a decree with a political content and legal-political nature. Its character is public, as it appeared in the Gazette. The author was Francisco Franco, ‘Head of the State Government’ and ‘Generalissimo of the Armies’ in the area controlled by the rebels. It was approved in April 1937, following successive failures to take Madrid and the conviction that the war would
Read MoreThe Rise of Bolshevism and the Fall of the Tsar in Russia
The fascism in Italy, nationalism of Hitler in Germany in 1903, and militarism in Japan created a complex backdrop for Russia. Economically, the country maintained a full century of feudal structure, and the farmers lived under very poor conditions. Tsarism represented an absolute monarchy where the Tsar governed with an extensive bureaucracy, supported by the nobility and the church. The Russian Empire integrated many peoples and cultures but was one of the most backward nations in Europe.
The Duma,
Read MorePhilip II’s Foreign Policy and the European Old Regime Era
Philip II’s Foreign Policy and European Dominance
Philip II’s reign was marked by significant foreign policy challenges and triumphs that solidified Spain’s position as a dominant European power.
France
Pope Paul IV allied with France, aiming to expel the Spanish from Naples. However, the decisive Spanish victory at the Battle of Saint-Quentin and the subsequent Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559 ended this confrontation. This treaty established Spain as the hegemonic and most powerful country in Europe.
Read MoreSpain’s 19th Century: Crisis, Liberalism, and Conflict
The Crisis of the Bourbon Monarchy
Carlos IV and the Napoleonic Era
The crisis of the Bourbon monarchy began with the reaction of the monarchy of Carlos IV against Revolutionary France. War was declared in 1793, lasting until 1795. This conflict proved to be a failure, leading Manuel Godoy to make a sharp turn in foreign policy. Soon, Napoleon gained influence, authorizing the French army to pass through Spain to attack Portugal. This provoked the outbreak of the Mutiny of Aranjuez in 1808.
Faced with
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