Bourbon Reforms: 18th Century Spanish State & Society
The New Bourbon State in Spain
The domestic policy of the Bourbons differed significantly from that of their predecessors. The assertion of state power necessary for these reforms was also intended to bolster Spain’s influence in international affairs.
During the eighteenth century, notable intellectuals emerged to take charge of reform projects. Their names are well known: Feijoo, Mayans, Campomanes, Jovellanos, etc. However, this intellectual movement, though representing a minority of the population,
Read MoreSpain’s Second Republic: Formation & 1931 Constitution
The Second Spanish Republic: Genesis & Early Days
On April 12, 1931, municipal elections took place in Spain with a participation rate of 66.9% of eligible male voters over 25 years old. These elections were widely interpreted as a referendum on the monarchy. Anti-monarchist candidates—representing parties such as the PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party), radical parties, various Republican groups, and Basque and Catalan nationalists—achieved significant victories, winning in 41 out of
Read MoreSpain’s Political Arena: Early 20th Century Reforms & Factions
Spanish Political Arena: Early 20th Century Reforms & Factions
Government Reforms and Social Policies
Initially, the government aimed to limit the Church’s power. This involved reforming its funding, as the Church still received salaries that the government attempted to cut. The Padlock Law was also created, designed to prevent new religious orders from establishing themselves in Spain if they were not to the Church’s liking.
Regarding social policy, a significant measure was the law to abolish
Read MoreUS Expansion, Progressive Reforms, and World War I Impact
American Imperialism Dynamics
Imperialism’s Foundations
The concept of an “Empire for Liberty” (Thomas Jefferson, 1808) laid some early groundwork.
Expansionism: Late 19th & Early 20th Century
Economic Drivers of Expansion
- Search for raw materials and new markets for American goods.
- Increased investments in Latin America.
- Mining interests (e.g., leading to the Panama Canal).
- Promotion of domestic consumption (e.g., “Buy American” campaigns).
Cultural & Spiritual Expansion
Efforts to spread American
Read MorePost-Revolutionary Europe: Napoleon, Revolutions, Nationalism
France Under the Directory
The Directory was forced to use strong measures to maintain control. For this reason, both royalist uprisings and radical movements (like the Conspiracy of Equals) were harshly repressed. In this context, preparations began for Napoleon’s rise, which culminated in the coup d’état known as the 18th Brumaire of 1799. He promised the French people that calm would return and that the French Revolution would end.
Napoleon’s Rise to Power
From 1802, Napoleon consolidated his power
Read More19th Century Europe: Unification, Revolutions & Labor
German Unification
Background and Influences
In the 19th century, the territory of modern-day Germany consisted of 39 states within the Germanic Confederation, where the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia were the most prominent powers. German national sentiment, particularly strong in the northern states, was fueled by several factors:
- Nostalgic romanticism for the German imperial past, championed by philosophers, historians, poets, and musicians.
- A common language and culture.
- A bourgeoisie