Second Spanish Republic: 1931-1936 Reforms and Constitution
The Second Republic: 1931-1936 Reforms and Constitution
On April 14, 1931, the Second Republic was proclaimed in Madrid, Barcelona, and other Spanish cities. The Republican victory in the municipal elections, called by Berenguer, led to the fall of the monarchy and the exile of King Alfonso XIII. A Provisional Government, chaired by Niceto Alcalá Zamora, was formed by party leaders who signed the 1930 Pact of San Sebastián.
The Constitution of 1931
In June 1931, Constituent Cortes were convened.
Read MoreSpanish War of Independence: A Nation’s Struggle
The Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814)
A Nation’s Struggle Against French Invasion
The Spanish War of Independence, a war of national liberation against French invaders, was a complex phenomenon with international, civil, and political dimensions.
International Conflict
The war began in 1792, involving England, Portugal, and Spain against France. The Duke of Wellington’s leadership of the English army proved decisive.
Civil War
The French invasion divided Spain:
- Francophiles: A minority supporting
Bourbon Dynasty Reforms and the Reign of Charles III in Spain
Reforms in the State Organization: The Centralist Monarchy
The new Bourbon dynasty consolidated absolute monarchy, reinforcing its power through major legislative and administrative reforms based on two principles: centralization of power and legislative uniformity.
The Decrees of New Plant (Valencia and Aragon in 1707; Mallorca in 1715; and Catalonia in 1716) were the main instruments of these measures. They suppressed the charters, institutions, and positions of the Crown of Aragon territories,
Read MoreSpain’s Restoration: Bourbon Dynasty and Canovas System
The Restoration in Spain: Return of the Bourbons
Following a brief and contradictory democratic period, the Restoration brought the Bourbons back to power, ushering in an era of conservatism under the political control of the oligarchy. This period allowed for the reconstruction of the Spanish political system, with a focus on stability and longevity. Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, leader of the Conservative Party during the Sexenio Alfonsino, became the architect of this new system, often referred
Read MoreSpain’s Democratic Sexenio: Revolution to Restoration (1868-1874)
Spain’s Democratic Sexenio (1868-1874)
1. The Revolution of 1868
1.1 The Glorious Revolution
The period between the Glorious Revolution, which ousted Isabel II, and the Bourbon Restoration under Alfonso XII, witnessed diverse regimes and governments.
1.2 Development of the Revolution
a) The Military Coup
Admiral Topete’s fleet pronouncement in Cádiz Bay, joined by Prim, Serrano, and Dulce, initiated the revolution. Their manifesto, outlining the insurrection’s rationale, resonated across Spain. Royalist
German Unification: From Confederation to Empire
The Path to Unity
Unlike Italian unification, the German process faced unique challenges. Despite shared language and culture, Germany was fragmented into numerous small states. Two major powers, Austria and Prussia, competed for leadership. External intervention, unlike French involvement in Italy, played a lesser role. Key factors driving German unification included the Kingdom of Prussia under the Hohenzollern dynasty, influential social classes like the Prussian Junkers and industrial bourgeoisie,
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