Isabel II and the Democratic Sexenio: A Reign in Spain
The Reign of Isabel II
The Regency: First Phase (1833-1843)
The reign began with the so-called inheritance conflict that arose following the death of her father, Ferdinand VII. Isabel was born in 1830, meaning she was a child when the king fell ill in 1832 and was raised for succession. According to Salic law, women could not reign, but Ferdinand nullified this with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1830. He named his wife Maria Cristina regent and forced the courts to swear to his daughter Isabel as successor.
When Ferdinand VII died in September 1833, his brother and pretender to the throne, Carlos, refused to recognize the legitimacy of Princess Isabel, self-proclaimed Charles V. His supporters took up arms, sparking a civil war between the Carlists and the Isabellinos. Isabel had to seek allies among the liberal bourgeoisie to defend the throne. Carlism attracted socially important sectors of the clergy and the rural world. The regions of Carlist predominance were always the Basque provinces and Navarre. Their ideological bases are summed up in the motto “God, country, king, and charters,” which meant radical opposition to liberal reforms, defense of absolute monarchy and other values of the old regime, defending the interests of the church and Basque-Navarrese charters.
Carlist War
The Carlist War had many similarities to the recent War of Independence: the rebels controlled large rural areas in the north and northwest of Spain but could not dominate any relevant city. The attempt to take Madrid was frustrated, but they did not even fight. The Isabellino army, commanded by General Espartero, achieved an important victory in the battle of Luchana that ended the siege of Bilbao. The Carlist army was quite divided, with no significant victories and a media presence that was used sparingly. Finally, on August 31, 1839, Espartero and Maroto signed the agreement of Vergara that ended the war, in which Espartero agreed to respect the Basque privileges. For their part, 25,000 men of the Carlist army turned in their weapons. Carlos felt betrayed and exiled to France.
Besides the war, the question remained open as to whether the regional laws should be equal for all Spaniards. In 1841, several laws were approved by which Navarre lost its customs, fiscal privileges, exemptions from military service, and its own government institutions. In exchange, they got a very beneficial tax system. In 1841, the Basque provinces lost some former provincial privileges, but they agreed to the so-called economic agreement. The regional question persisted throughout the 19th century.
While the Carlist war was developing, early liberalization measures were staggered since the ruling Queen had to make concessions to those who were defending the throne for her daughter against the Carlists. The most significant measures of this period were:
The Royal Statute of 1834
This is a basic law granted by the ruler to give up some of her powers to the courts. It reformed only the courts, which were configured in two chambers:
- Upper Chamber: Of a distinctly aristocratic character, composed of high nobility, bishops, archbishops, senior military, and an undetermined number of influential persons appointed by the crown.
- Lower Chamber: Composed of representatives elected by a very restricted suffrage.
With the statute, the queen was allowed to concentrate all powers. The statute was very inadequate for the liberal progressives, so after a new revolt of the army, the mutiny of the sergeants of La Granja in 1836, the Constitution of 1812 returned to come into force until 1837, when a new constitution was developed.
The Constitution of 1837
The progressives based the text on that of 1812. The main features of this constitution are:
- National sovereignty
- Division of powers
- Legislative power in two chambers: House of Representatives and Senate
- The king maintains considerable powers of the executive, legislative initiative, veto power, appointment of senators, and appointments of ministers
- A full title includes the declaration of rights and individual freedom
- Religions other than Catholicism are allowed
The Sale of Religious Assets (Mendizábal)
This was one of the most significant political and economic events of the Regency. Secularization is expropriating the assets of the church. The aim was to eliminate “dead hands” lands, that is, those that were outside the market, to make them produce in the hands of other owners. The measure was carried out by the progressive General Mendizábal, who returned from exile to be called by the mayor to address the serious deficit in the state.
In 1840, Maria Cristina was forced to resign the regency, and General Espartero was elected. He continued Mendizábal’s progressive work and wanted to advance in the implementation of economic liberalism. Signing a free trade agreement with Britain created many enemies for him. Espartero finally went into exile in London.
Second Stage: The Reign of Isabel II (1843-1868)
After the departure of Espartero, Isabella was declared of age in 1843 at age 13, directly assuming responsibilities as Queen of Spain. During the first part (1843-1854), known as the Moderate Decade, the moderates controlled the successive governments. Basic state institutions were consolidated, such as the cabinet, which was organized from 6 to 8 ministries. Local administration began to have a remarkable importance. The Civil Guard was created in 1844. The reform of the tax system created an efficient and modern system. The electoral law of 1846 reduced the number of voters to 96,000 men.
The moderate system model is reflected in a new constitution of 1845. The new constitutional text deleted articles and the principle of national sovereignty, replaced by shared sovereignty between the courts and the crown, established the Catholic confessional state, and cut individual rights.
The moderate stage of the decade had reached a point at which the corruption of political and economic life and the favoritism of the Queen provoked a crisis. As before, it arrived by military means: a new statement, known as the Vicalvarada, led by Generals O’Donnell and Dulce, ended the Moderate Decade and started a short period known as the Progressive Biennium from 1854 to 1856.
Major achievements of the biennium include:
- A new disentailment process in 1855 enacting the general law for secularization, so-called because it put on sale the assets of collectively owned property
- The railroad law passed in 1855, which took advantage of an ambitious drive for the construction of lines in Spain
- A new draft constitution, the so-called “non nata” of 1856, which described the principles of the progressives but never entered into force
Finally, the Ostend pact with the exiles led to the queen’s exile, the introduction of a new monarch, Amadeo, and shortly after, the proclamation of the First Republic.
The Democratic Sexenio
Earlier Stages: Triumph of the Revolution and Provisional Government (1868-1869)
The protagonists in this were initially the political forces that signed the pact in Ostend:
- Progressives: Led by General Juan Prim. He was gathering the various forces that signed the Ostend Pact to form the provisional government.
- Democrats: This sector provided a substantial intellectual base and connected with the urban popular classes.
- Unionists: Led by General Serrano. His main contribution was his influence in the army and the support of the wealthy.
Triumph of the Military Insurrection
The formula chosen to carry out the revolution was the pronouncement: On September 19, 1868, Admiral Topete, with a manifesto shouting “Long live Spain with honor,” proclaimed the expulsion of the queen and the establishment of a provisional government. It was formed by progressives and unionists, leaving the Democrats out. General Serrano was in charge, with Prim as Minister of War and undisputed leader of the process. This first government adopted a democratic regime, as was recognition of the freedoms of expression, association, and assembly, and limitations were placed on the church. He wanted to ensure order and control the situation of the central government, issuing a decree of dissolution of the juntas.
Monarchy or Republic
The crucial issue was the decision on how the state should be organized: democratic monarchy or republic. It was decided for the democratic monarchy, but with the condition that the future king would not be a Bourbon. Some accepted the monarchy, and others declared themselves Republicans.
Second Stage: Regency of General Serrano (1869-1871)
While looking for a king, the courts appointed General Serrano as regent, but Prim still controlled the reins of power. There were several candidates in the European royal houses, and the choice of any of them caused apprehension among European countries. Finally, Amadeo of Savoy was elected.
Third Stage: Reign of Amadeo I (1871-1873)
Prim was assassinated in December 1870, prompting Amadeo’s reign to be unstable from the beginning. He faced problems on several fronts: among the parties that supported him, with the enemies of the regime, in conflict with Cuba, and with the Republicans.
Fourth Stage: First Republic
On February 11, 1873, the Court proclaimed the Republic after the abdication of Amadeo I. The end of the Republic occurred in 1874 when General Martínez Campos proclaimed Alfonso XII as king.