Spain’s Tumultuous 19th Century: From Absolutism to Liberalism
After the Treaty of Valençay in 1813, Fernando VII was prepared to return to Spain. However, his political principles were completely opposite to those of the absolutists.
Fernando VII arrived in Spain on March 22, 1814, and received continuous popular acclaim. On April 12, a group of absolutist deputies to the Cortes presented the Manifesto of the Persians, demanding a return to absolutism.
Finally, on May 4, 1814, in Valencia, Ferdinand VII issued a decree dissolving Parliament, abolishing the
Read MoreRise and Fall of the Weimar Republic: From Democracy to Dictatorship
The Weimar Republic: A Decade of Struggle and Success
Internal and External Challenges
The Weimar Republic faced immense pressure both domestically and internationally. Despite a decade of hostility within the country, the government managed to restore Germany’s international reputation. From a defeated enemy, Germany transformed into a respected diplomatic and political partner.
Foreign Minister Gustav Stresemann played a crucial role in fostering understanding with Western powers. His policies,
Read MoreIberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages
The First Centers of Christian Resistance
A) The Asturian Nucleus
Pelayo defeated a Muslim army in Covadonga in 722, organizing the Kingdom of Asturias. Alfonso I (739-757) assumed Visigoth jurisdiction and established legal and political elements. Northern emigration reinforced this continuity. Alfonso II (791-842) established the capital in Oviedo, where the tomb of Santiago was discovered, leading to a large pilgrimage. Alfonso III (866-910) extended the border to the Douro River. At his death,
Read MoreEurope’s Transformation: From Old Regime to Modern Era
The Old Regime (Pre-1789)
Overview
The era preceding 1789, known as the “Old Regime,” saw continental hegemony shift from Spain to France. Spain’s dominance, based on inherited territories and American conquests, was challenged by France and other European powers. Conflicts led to Spain’s loss of possessions and the rise of Louis XIV’s France. Portugal and Spain also lost commercial power to the United Provinces, Britain, and France.
Political Systems
Absolute monarchy, the dominant system, asserted
Read MoreBismarck, Armed Peace, and Colonial Imperialism: A World War I Prelude
Bismarck and the Armed Peace
When Bismarck, the Iron Chancellor, unified Germany, his foreign policy focused on creating international alliances (Bismarckian system). This system aimed to isolate France, resentful of the loss of Alsace and Lorraine during the Franco-Prussian War, which threatened the stability of the newly created German state. This led to German hegemony. Three Bismarckian systems were formed through alliances between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia, later joined by Italy.
Read MoreSpanish War of Independence & American Colonial Independence
The Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814)
Causes of the War
The Spanish monarchy’s reaction against the French Revolution was to declare war on France from 1793-1795. From 1799, Manuel Godoy allied Spain with Great Britain to face Napoleon. He signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau, but fear provoked the Mutiny of Aranjuez (1808), forcing Godoy’s resignation and the abdication of King Carlos IV. Napoleon forced both abdications and appointed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as the new King of Spain.
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