Europe’s Transformation: From Old Regime to Modern Era
The Old Regime (Pre-1789)
Overview
The era preceding 1789, known as the “Old Regime,” saw continental hegemony shift from Spain to France. Spain’s dominance, based on inherited territories and American conquests, was challenged by France and other European powers. Conflicts led to Spain’s loss of possessions and the rise of Louis XIV’s France. Portugal and Spain also lost commercial power to the United Provinces, Britain, and France.
Political Systems
Absolute monarchy, the dominant system, asserted divine right. Political participation was limited, with social elites approving taxes. However, the United Provinces and Great Britain developed alternative systems.
Economy
The economy relied on agriculture. Geographical discoveries spurred crafts and trade. Agriculture provided basic food for over 80% of the population, using rudimentary methods. Crafts focused on textiles and metallurgy, with production in urban workshops controlled by guilds. New forms of production, like home work and manufactures, emerged in the 17th century. Internal trade occurred in weekly local markets, while external trade, centered in larger cities, boomed after the mid-15th century due to geographical discoveries.
18th Century Transformations
International Scene
The 18th century witnessed a continental balance of power and struggles for colonial hegemony. The Peace of Utrecht and Rastatt, following the War of Spanish Succession, established a principle of equilibrium proposed by Britain. However, wars continued, driven by French and Spanish desires to regain power. Britain emerged as the leading colonial and commercial power.
The French Revolution
Causes:
- Political and Ideological: The Enlightenment provided the intellectual basis for challenging absolutism.
- Social: Widespread discontent existed. Nobles and clergy lost power under absolutism and faced financial difficulties. The bourgeoisie’s political influence was limited, and their activities hampered by mercantilism. The peasantry lived in subsistence, burdened by taxes.
- Economic: Two crises fueled the revolution: a subsistence crisis due to crop failures and a state debt crisis caused by military spending and court expenses.
Consequences of the Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution significantly impacted international relations, influencing countries’ power and driving population growth and urban expansion. It stimulated other economic activities, fostered capitalism, and created a new class society based on wealth. It also spurred the development of science and technology.
Socialism and Anarchism
Socialism, founded by Marx and Engels, aimed to abolish private property, the source of social division, through a proletariat revolution led by a socialist party. Anarchism, advocated by Proudhon and Bakunin, sought maximum individual freedom by opposing limiting institutions like the state and church.
The Political Crisis of the Old Regime
War of Independence
Opposition to invaders took the form of guerrilla warfare, surprising the enemy in the field and resisting in cities like Girona, Zaragoza, and Valencia. The victory at Bailén (1808) led Napoleon to intervene. With British support, the Spanish defeated the French at Arapiles.
Goya
Between 1774-1792, Goya painted cartoons for tapestries and portraits, gaining fame among nobles. In 1789, he became Charles IV’s painter, creating portraits of the royal family, the Duchess of Alba, and the Countess of Chinchón. During Ferdinand VII’s reign, he painted the “Second of May” and the “Third of May.” After the war, he created the “Black Paintings” on his house walls. He later exiled himself to France due to his liberal ideas.
World War I
Causes
- Territorial Conflicts: France sought Alsace and Lorraine from Germany. Russia and Austria competed for the Balkans and access to the Mediterranean.
- National Conflicts: Nationalities within large empires sought independence.
- Economic Rivalries: Industrial Germany’s rise threatened British and French economies.
- Arms Race: An armed peace and the formation of the Triple Alliance and Triple Entente fueled military buildup.
Stages
- 1914-1918: Germany aimed for a quick victory over France to then focus on Russia. Trench warfare ensued, stabilizing the front.
- 1917: The Bolshevik Revolution led to Russia’s withdrawal, allowing Germany to concentrate on France. The U.S. joined the Allies after German submarine attacks.
- End of War: Allied offensives on all fronts led to the Central Powers’ surrender.
Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship
First Stage: A military junta suspended the constitution, dissolved courts, banned political parties, suppressed the labor movement, and achieved victory in Morocco.
Second Stage: A civil directory focused on industrial and agricultural development, infrastructure projects, and railway improvements.
Primo de Rivera resigned in 1930. Attempts to restore the parliamentary system failed, and Republican victories led to Alfonso XIII’s exile.
Second Republic (1931-1936)
Provisional Government and Constitution of 1931
After Alfonso XIII’s exile, the Second Republic was proclaimed on April 14, 1931. A provisional government of socialist and republican nationalists called elections. Left-leaning parties dominated the Constituent Cortes.
Constitution of 1931
The constitution established popular sovereignty, universal suffrage, separation of powers, regional autonomy, and a secular state.
Reformist Period (1931-1933)
Manuel Azaña’s government implemented reforms, including church-state separation, decentralization (granting Catalonia autonomy), and improved working conditions (40-hour workweek, wage increases, and social insurance).
Spanish Civil War
A military coup aimed to seize Madrid. Two columns advancing on Madrid were defeated at Jarama and Guadalajara, forcing a change of plans. The war shifted to the north (Cantabria) and then to the Mediterranean to divide Republican territory. The Republicans launched the Ebro offensive but were defeated. Rebels captured Catalonia and then Madrid, ending the war in 1939 under Franco.
Cold War
From 1947 to 1991, tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union resulted in the Cold War. This involved military, ideological, and diplomatic confrontation, including economic cooperation, military alliances, and an arms race.
Period of Maximum Tension
- Berlin Blockade: With Berlin divided into four zones, Stalin blockaded West Berlin after Western allies unified their zones. The blockade was eventually lifted.
- Korean War: After Japan’s defeat, Korea was divided. In 1950, North Korea invaded the South, leading to a war that ended in 1953 with the pre-war border restored.