Bismarck, Armed Peace, and Colonial Imperialism: A World War I Prelude
Bismarck and the Armed Peace
When Bismarck, the Iron Chancellor, unified Germany, his foreign policy focused on creating international alliances (Bismarckian system). This system aimed to isolate France, resentful of the loss of Alsace and Lorraine during the Franco-Prussian War, which threatened the stability of the newly created German state. This led to German hegemony. Three Bismarckian systems were formed through alliances between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia, later joined by Italy. These alliances repeatedly fell apart due to the rivalry between Russia and Austria-Hungary over the Balkans. Bismarck’s political framework unraveled with the ascension of Kaiser Wilhelm II, leading to Bismarck’s resignation in 1890. Germany’s hegemonic attitude led to anti-German alliances like the Triple Entente. The German emperor reacted to these alliances, causing conflicts in North Africa and the Balkans. The period between 1871 and 1914 is known as an armed peace because, although no major war occurred, European countries developed their troops. Peace seemed stable, but disputes over colonial rule, jealousy, and the desire for more power among the major powers ultimately led to this arms race.
Colonial Imperialism: Causes
The second phase of the Industrial Revolution spurred industrialized countries to seek new sources of raw materials, energy, and investment opportunities for surplus capital and industrial products. This led to the conquests of much of Oceania, Africa, and Asia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by European powers, the United States, and Japan, with the goal of economically exploiting these areas through the establishment of colonies. Other factors contributing to colonial imperialism include:
- Social-Demographic: Huge European population growth and the widespread use of machinery encouraged emigration to colonies, alleviating overpopulation.
- Political: International relations prompted European governments to control strategic territories to enhance their prestige and power.
- Scientific: The desire to explore new territories led to the creation of Geographical Societies, sparking interest in unknown lands.
- Cultural: The belief in white racial superiority fostered a sense of duty to spread European civilization, culture, and Christianity.
Colonial expansion was also facilitated by advancements in transportation and communication, such as the Suez Canal.
Types of Colonies
Colonies of settlement were primarily populated by people from the metropolis, often enjoying self-governance, as seen in British colonies. Colonies of exploitation involved direct governance of the indigenous population, often subjected to forced labor (e.g., King Leopold II’s Congo Free State).
In 1885, the Berlin Conference established guidelines for colonizing Africa.
Colonial Empires
- United Kingdom: By the early 20th century, the United Kingdom was the leading world power with the most extensive empire, including territories in Africa (Egypt, Sudan), America (Canada, Guyana), Oceania (Australia, New Zealand), and Asia (India).
- France: While not as vast as the British Empire, the French empire held significant possessions in Asia (Tonkin, Laos), Africa (Morocco, Algeria), and America (French Guiana).
Other colonial powers included Italy (Libya), the Netherlands (Indonesia), Germany (Southwest Africa), Portugal (Angola, Mozambique), Belgium (Congo), and Spain (Northern Sahara).
Consequences of Colonial Imperialism
- Economic: Colonies’ natural and human resources were exploited, often specializing in single crops and forced to buy manufactured goods from the mother country.
- Social-Demographic: Colonial populations increased due to European immigration and decreased indigenous mortality rates resulting from improved hygiene and healthcare. Racial segregation predominated, with the white European population dominating the indigenous population.
- Political: Colonizing countries used colonies to manage their rivalries.
- Cultural: Western culture was imposed on indigenous cultures, altering beliefs, traditions, and customs.
Reasons for the Outbreak of World War I
Several factors led to World War I:
- Territorial disputes, such as Austria-Hungary and Russia’s interests in the Balkans, and the Franco-German rivalry over Alsace-Lorraine.
- Economic rivalries, particularly between Germany and the UK, fueled by Germany’s rapid industrial growth and Britain’s relative decline in competitiveness.
- Colonial interests, which had already caused conflicts, were exacerbated by Germany’s attempts to acquire colonies.
- The formation of two alliance blocs: the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Triple Entente (France, United Kingdom, Russia). This fueled an arms race.
Belligerent Countries
The Triple Alliance was joined by the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria (1915), while Italy switched sides. This bloc became known as the Central Powers. The Triple Entente was joined by Serbia, Belgium, Romania (1916), Italy (1915), Portugal (1916), Japan, and the USA (1917), forming the Allied Powers. Colonial troops also participated in the war, fighting for their respective metropoles. The Central Powers had a prepared army and navy, while the Allies, though initially less militarily prepared, possessed stronger economies and larger populations.
Characteristics of the Conflict
World War I differed from previous conflicts due to:
- New defensive systems and weapons (machine guns, poison gas).
- Technological advancements (telegraph, telephone) enabling communication, remote control, naval blockades, and the destruction of infrastructure.
- The use of submarines (U-boat warfare).