Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages
The First Centers of Christian Resistance
A) The Asturian Nucleus
Pelayo defeated a Muslim army in Covadonga in 722, organizing the Kingdom of Asturias. Alfonso I (739-757) assumed Visigoth jurisdiction and established legal and political elements. Northern emigration reinforced this continuity. Alfonso II (791-842) established the capital in Oviedo, where the tomb of Santiago was discovered, leading to a large pilgrimage. Alfonso III (866-910) extended the border to the Douro River. At his death, the capital was moved to León.
B) The Navarrese Nucleus
Located in the Pyrenees between France and Al-Andalus, the Kingdom of Pamplona emerged under the Íñiga dynasty. It reached its peak with Sancho III of Navarre (1000-1035), the most powerful monarch of the Christian kingdoms. He facilitated relations with the Franks and laid the groundwork for the Camino de Santiago.
C) The Aragonese Nucleus
Initially a weak area under Carolingian and then Navarrese influence, it saw little progress in the Reconquista.
D) The Catalan Nucleus
Part of the Frankish kingdom, the County of Barcelona soon gained predominance. Wifred the Hairy reconquered territories, and after his death, the County of Barcelona became independent.
Main Stages of the Reconquista (718-1492)
During this period, Christians and Muslims coexisted and fought. The following stages can be distinguished:
1st Stage (8th-10th Centuries)
The Christian victory at Covadonga consolidated the northern nuclei, which then moved south. The Asturian kingdom reached the Douro River, moving the political center to León in 910, marking the beginning of the Kingdom of León.
2nd Stage (Mid-11th-12th Centuries)
Following Muslim weakness, Castile and León occupied the central mountain range and the Tagus basin. Toledo was reconquered in 1085 (Alfonso VI). The southward advance continued with Alfonso I of Aragon reconquering Zaragoza in 1118, Alfonso VII of Castile taking Almoravid territories, and Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona, conquering Tortosa in 1148 and Lleida and Lisbon in 1147 and 1149, respectively.
3rd Stage (Late 12th and Early 13th Centuries)
The arrival of the Almohads, an African kingdom, saw them defeat Alfonso VIII of Castile and León. However, the Christians later won the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, opening the advance to the Guadalquivir Valley.
4th Stage (13th Century)
Ferdinand III rapidly occupied the Guadalquivir Valley, and James I the Conqueror took Valencia and the Balearic Islands. The Catholic Monarchs expelled the last Muslim ruler, Boabdil, from Granada. Castile became independent, and the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon united through marriage, creating the Crown of Aragon. Portugal also became independent. By the end of the Middle Ages, the peninsula was divided into Castile, Aragon, Navarre, Portugal, and the Muslim kingdom of Granada.
Models of Resettlement and Social Organization
- Presura or Aprisio in the Douro Valley: Peasants freely occupied land, with the king later sanctioning ownership, creating a class of free peasants.
- Repoblación Concejil in the Ebro Valley: Based on the creation of councils and cities, directed by the king and based on medium-sized properties.
- Repoblación in the high valleys of the Guadiana, Júcar, and Turia: Land was allotted to the military orders of Santiago, Calatrava, Alcántara, and Montesa.
- Repoblación in Extremadura, the Guadalquivir Valley, and the Levant: Kings granted large areas to nobles and soldiers, consolidating a feudal society.
Social Organization
- Nobility: Large landowners.
- Clergy: Landowners and lords.
- Peasants: Landless workers.
- Bourgeoisie: Emerging class in the developing cities.
Minority groups, such as the Jewish community, also existed.
Culture
The Middle Ages saw a fusion of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish cultures. Islamic culture was initially superior, but by the 11th century, Romance languages developed, and universities appeared in the 13th century. The School of Translators served as a cultural bridge between Islam and Christianity. Gothic architecture emerged, emphasizing verticality and luminosity, seen in cathedrals like Burgos, Toledo, León, Barcelona, and Palma de Mallorca. Sculpture highlights include the Portico of Glory at the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela. Mudéjar art, adapting Romanesque and Gothic styles with innovations like brick and tile, also flourished.