Rise and Fall of the Weimar Republic: From Democracy to Dictatorship
The Weimar Republic: A Decade of Struggle and Success
Internal and External Challenges
The Weimar Republic faced immense pressure both domestically and internationally. Despite a decade of hostility within the country, the government managed to restore Germany’s international reputation. From a defeated enemy, Germany transformed into a respected diplomatic and political partner.
Foreign Minister Gustav Stresemann played a crucial role in fostering understanding with Western powers. His policies, supported by the SPD, aimed at reconciliation and rebuilding trust.
Economic Recovery and Social Policies
The currency reform of late 1923, adoption of new production methods, and substantial loans from the U.S. spurred economic recovery. The Weimar government’s social policies also addressed long-standing debts and inequalities.
Successes in Foreign Policy
- 1922: Treaty between Germany and Russia: Mutual waiver of reparations, ending their foreign policy isolation.
- 1924: Dawes Plan: Reparations adjusted to Germany’s economic capacity, facilitated by large U.S. loans.
- 1925: Allied troops evacuated the Ruhr region, occupied since 1923. Locarno Treaty: Recognition of Germany’s western borders with France and Belgium.
- 1926: Berlin Treaty with the Soviet Union: Assurance of mutual neutrality and economic cooperation. Germany joined the League of Nations.
- 1926: Gustav Stresemann awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
- 1930: Young Plan: Further adjustments to war reparations.
From Parliamentary Democracy to Dictatorship (1919-1933)
From 1919 to 1930, Germany functioned as a parliamentary democracy. However, by 1930, it transitioned into an authoritarian state ruled by emergency decrees. In 1933, the German Reich became a dictatorship, fueled by a significant portion of the electorate willing to vote for parties that aimed to abolish parliamentary democracy.
Scapegoating and Propaganda
The global economic crisis, originating in the U.S. in 1929, impacted all industrial nations, including Germany. Right-wing parties and associations, particularly the Nazi Party, exploited the crisis to promote their anti-republican, anti-Marxist, and anti-Semitic ideologies.
Governing by Emergency Decrees
In 1930, the ‘Grand Coalition’ government collapsed due to disagreements between the SPD and DVP on unemployment insurance. Subsequent governments ruled without parliamentary majorities, relying on presidential ’emergency decrees’ (Article 48). While the parliament could demand the lifting of an emergency decree, the President (Hindenburg) held the power to dissolve the parliament and call new elections (Article 25). Between 1930 and 1933, four Reichstag elections took place.
Political Polarization
The parliament’s influence diminished as republican parties and the SPD struggled to find common ground. The NSDAP and DNVP formed an alliance (Harzburg Front) in 1931, opposing the Weimar Republic. The SPD and KPD fought against them.
Economic Crisis Deepens
By 1931, the global economic crisis severely impacted Germany. Austerity measures proved ineffective against the effects of the crisis. Despite increased public spending, unemployment continued to rise, making it impossible to achieve a balanced budget. Unions resisted wage cuts and layoffs, fearing job losses, and discouraged participation in solidarity strikes.
The Rise of the Nazi Party
Many voters, including workers, became susceptible to the radical right-wing rhetoric, particularly that of the NSDAP. The Nazi Party, a German fascist party under Hitler’s dictatorial control, was neither socialist nor a workers’ party. Hitler promised solutions to all problems: jobs, higher wages, a stronger army, suppression of the labor movement, and persecution of Jews. Underlying these promises was the vision of a ‘Greater German Reich’ based on a supremacist ideology.
Political Violence Escalates
Supporters of different parties engaged in open hostility. Some parties formed paramilitary units, leading to street fights. The SA, composed of unemployed and disaffected young men (400,000 strong), became a powerful and violent force, often surpassing the army in strength.
Hitler’s Appointment as Chancellor
From the 1930 elections onwards, influential circles supported the Nazi Party and other right-wing parties, often with substantial financial contributions. On January 30, 1933, President Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor.
Seizure of Power
Following Hitler’s appointment, new Reichstag elections were called. Shortly before the elections, the Reichstag building was set on fire. The Nazis blamed the Communists and used the incident to suppress political opponents. Communist Party officials and members, along with SPD members, were arrested. Communist and SPD newspapers were banned, and communists were persecuted and killed.
The Enabling Act and the End of Democracy
In the March 5, 1933 elections, the NSDAP received 43.9% of the vote. On March 23, 1933, all parties except the SPD and KPD voted for the ‘Enabling Act,’ granting Hitler the power to govern without parliament for four years. This act effectively ended democracy in Germany.
Consolidation of Power
The Nazis suppressed trade unions, arresting their leaders and forcing workers into the German Labor Front (DAF). In June, the SPD was banned, and other parties dissolved under pressure, leaving the NSDAP as the only legal party.
The Night of the Long Knives
On June 30, 1934, Hitler ordered the SS to arrest and execute SA leaders without trial, claiming they were planning a coup. Following Hindenburg’s death in 1934, Hitler combined the offices of President and Chancellor, becoming the supreme leader of Germany.