Age of Exploration: European Voyages & Conquest of the Americas
1. The Rise of Maritime Trade
In medieval Europe, trade with the East was conducted through the Silk Routes. However, the Turkish conquest of Constantinople in 1459 disrupted these routes, necessitating the search for new sea lanes to transport luxury goods.
Portuguese Expeditions
Portuguese sailors pioneered new Atlantic routes:
- The African Route: Sailing west, they reached Madeira and the Azores, then navigated the southern coast of Africa, establishing trading colonies in the Gulf of New Guinea for
Spanish Civil War: Causes, Battles, and International Involvement
The Spanish Civil War 1
The Military Uprising
Since the night of the February 1936 elections, General Franco attempted to declare a state of war. In March, a group of generals (Mola, Goded, etc.) agreed to a military uprising to restore order. Initially, the conspiracy had little strength until Mola became its director. His plan involved a simultaneous declaration at all possible garrisons, with Madrid and Barcelona considered key, and the Army of Africa (the best prepared) as a special reserve, under
Read MoreSlavery, Crisis, and Barbarian Invasions in the Roman Empire
1. Slaves and the Roman Economy
The Roman economic system relied heavily on sclavismo, a form of slavery that defined legal and economic relationships between Roman citizens, non-citizens, freemen, and slaves. While productive, this system fostered an elitist society.
In this slave-based economy, Roman citizens in urban and rural areas often lived in idleness, relying on slave labor. This led to a clear separation between intellectual and physical work, with physical labor deemed unworthy of a free
Read MoreGerman and Italian Unifications: Bismarck, Cavour, and Nationalism
German Unification
The problem of unification in 1848 was postponed. Republicans played an insignificant role. Three solutions were considered: unification by popular will (the Frankfurt Parliament failed when the Prussian king refused the crown), a union around Austria (strengthening the Germanic Confederation, with Prussia in a secondary role and incorporating the Austrian Empire, known as Greater Germany), or a Prussian Union (excluding Austria). The conservative Prussian Otto von Bismarck realized
Read MoreMedieval Europe: Political Spaces and the Carolingian Legacy
ITEM 3. Preliminary Concepts
3.1. The Middle Ages: Assessment and Chronology
The concept of the Middle Ages emerged during the Renaissance, representing a model from which to diverge. It was viewed negatively, marked by humanist and Protestant perspectives as a time of cultural and intellectual barbarism. For them, the Middle Ages began with the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire and the loss of classical works. It was seen as a time of superstition, with practices like the Mass of the Dead, worship
Read MoreSpain’s 19th Century Turmoil: Revolution, Monarchy, and Republic
Topic 12.4: Revolution, Reign of Amadeo I, and First Republic
The Revolution of 1868: The revolution was triggered by several factors, including the economic crisis of 1864. This crisis led to the collapse of railway companies, banks, and businesses, culminating in a stock market crash that bankrupted the Treasury. Queen Isabella II, on holiday in San Sebastian, went into exile. The revolution succeeded due to a convergence of interests. Unemployment and poverty fueled popular discontent, further
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