Age of Exploration: European Voyages & Conquest of the Americas
1. The Rise of Maritime Trade
In medieval Europe, trade with the East was conducted through the Silk Routes. However, the Turkish conquest of Constantinople in 1459 disrupted these routes, necessitating the search for new sea lanes to transport luxury goods.
Portuguese Expeditions
Portuguese sailors pioneered new Atlantic routes:
- The African Route: Sailing west, they reached Madeira and the Azores, then navigated the southern coast of Africa, establishing trading colonies in the Gulf of New Guinea for gold, ivory, and slaves.
- The Indian Route: Vasco da Gama’s expedition reached India, opening the way to the Moluccas (Spice Islands).
Portolan (detailed marine charts), the rudder, compass, and astrolabe improved navigation. The caravel, a robust ship, was developed for Atlantic voyages.
2. Columbus’s Project
Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor, believed in reaching the Indies by sailing west across the Atlantic. He underestimated Earth’s circumference. The Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, financed his voyage, granting him the titles of Admiral of the Ocean Sea and Viceroy of the discovered lands, along with 10% of the profits.
The Four Voyages of Columbus
- 1492: Departed with the Santa Maria, Pinta, and Niña, landing on Guanahani (San Salvador). Explored other islands and returned to Spain in 1493.
- 1493: Sailed with 15 ships and 1,500 men, staying on Hispaniola.
- 1498: Reached Trinidad.
- 1502: Explored Central America. Died in Valladolid in 1506, still believing he had reached the Indies.
3. Pre-Columbian Peoples
The Americas were inhabited for over 20,000 years. Notable civilizations included:
Maya
Located in southern Yucatan, they were skilled farmers (maize cultivation), organized into independent city-states, and possessed advanced knowledge in mathematics, astronomy, and hieroglyphics. They built impressive temples and palaces.
Inca
Developed in the Andes around 1100, creating a vast empire with over 12 million people. They were farmers ruled by an emperor considered a god (the Inca). They constructed remarkable stone fortresses like Machu Picchu.
Aztec
Settled in the Valley of Mexico around 1200. A warlike people, they conquered a large empire by 1519. Political and religious power was concentrated in the emperor’s hands. Agriculture and trade were central to their economy. They developed an urban civilization and built grand temples.
4. Great Expeditions
The Conquest of Mexico
Hernán Cortés led an expedition from Cuba in 1518, landing in Veracruz. He exploited Aztec rivalries and superior military technology to conquer the empire, defeating them at the Battle of Otumba. Aztec territories became part of the Spanish Empire.
The Conquest of Peru
In 1531, Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire. Exploiting internal conflicts, he defeated the Incas at the Battle of Cajamarca, executed Emperor Atahualpa, and seized the capital, Cuzco.
Organization of Conquered Territories
Conquered territories were incorporated into the Crown of Castile. Spanish language, laws, religion, and culture were imposed. Two viceroyalties were established: New Spain and Peru. Each had a viceroy, municipalities, town meetings, courts (audiencias), and the Council of the Indies, which advised the king and legislated for the territories.
5. Exploitation of Resources
The American territories became a major source of income for Castile. Colonists sought land and mines. Land was divided among settlers, and the encomienda system was established for labor. The discovery of gold and silver led to regulations for their exploitation. Mines were royal property, with the Crown granting exploitation rights in exchange for a fifth of the extracted minerals. The mita system of compulsory labor was implemented for silver mining in Mexico and Bolivia. Indigenous labor was exploited in fields and mines. The Crown attempted to prevent abuses, and Spanish law prohibited enslavement of natives, recognizing them as subjects.
American Trade
Castile supplied wheat, cattle, sheep, vineyards, horses, and weapons to the Americas. Gold, silver, corn, and cacao were sent to Spain. Trade was monopolized through the port of Seville. The Casa de Contratación (House of Trade) was established in Seville in 1503.
Colonial Society
Political and economic power was held by Spaniards. The majority of the population consisted of diverse Amerindian ethnic groups. Criollos were descendants of settlers, numbering nearly half a million by the late sixteenth century. In areas with labor shortages, enslaved Africans were brought to work. Colonization had severe consequences for the indigenous population, which virtually disappeared in some areas like the Antilles.