German and Italian Unifications: Bismarck, Cavour, and Nationalism
German Unification
The problem of unification in 1848 was postponed. Republicans played an insignificant role. Three solutions were considered: unification by popular will (the Frankfurt Parliament failed when the Prussian king refused the crown), a union around Austria (strengthening the Germanic Confederation, with Prussia in a secondary role and incorporating the Austrian Empire, known as Greater Germany), or a Prussian Union (excluding Austria). The conservative Prussian Otto von Bismarck realized the latter was the best option.
The Role of Bismarck
To achieve his goals, Bismarck needed power. He became Minister-President of Prussia in 1862. He believed that only a war between Prussia and Austria could settle the issue. To win, he needed a powerful army and diplomatic support. Three wars were fought to achieve his aims.
Wars of German Unification
- War of the Duchies (1864): Austria and Prussia against Denmark, ostensibly to prevent the annexation of Schleswig and Holstein to Denmark, but really to create conflict with Austria. Austria and Prussia annexed Schleswig and Holstein.
- Austro-Prussian War (1866): Bismarck proposed a reform of the Germanic constitution based on universal suffrage. Austria refused, and Prussia, having secured diplomatic isolation of Austria (gaining support from Russia and vague promises from Napoleon III, and allying with Italy for the conquest of Veneto), invaded Holstein. Austria only had the support of small German states. Prussia won at the Battle of Sadowa and created the North German Confederation, with a Reichstag elected by universal suffrage and presided over by the Prussian king.
- Franco-Prussian War (1870): Following the annexation of Savoy, France demanded compensation from Germany. Bismarck refused, provoking France. French miscalculations (regarding the Spanish throne candidacy) led to war. The French army was defeated at Sedan, and the Emperor was captured. French defense was futile, and an armistice was signed in 1871. The German Empire was proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, incorporating Alsace and Lorraine.
Nationalism
Nationalism is a multifaceted concept. It is the emotional sense of belonging to a community, but also an intellectual current aiming to win over the majority through propaganda. Criteria like race, language, and customs are difficult to combine consistently. Nationalism seeks to align borders with national groups, achieve sovereignty, and determine destiny. It is a phenomenon of the 19th century, opposing absolute power (French Revolution) and centralization (Napoleon). In Restoration Europe, it opposed loyalism. It identifies the state with the nation. It can adapt to various political positions, from conservative to liberal to imperialist. There is liberal nationalism (freedom, national sovereignty) and conservative nationalism (order, tradition, expansionism). The latter could lead to extremes like 20th-century fascism. In Europe, it transformed borders, with consequences still felt today.
Italian Unification
The failure of 1848 showed Italians they couldn’t expel Austrians alone. Piedmont’s leaders, like Cavour, sought alliances with great powers. Three unification theories existed: an Italian Confederation led by the Pope (Gioberti’s neoguelphism), a republic (Mazzini’s Young Italy), or annexation to Piedmont (Balbo, D’Azeglio). The Pope rejected the first, the republic failed, and the monarchy prevailed.
Phases of Italian Unification
1859-1861: Cavour secured Napoleon III’s support against Austria, forming an alliance. After victories at Magenta and Solferino, Napoleon III unexpectedly signed an armistice with Austria. Lombardy was freed, but not Veneto. Cavour resigned, but revolts in Modena, Parma, and Tuscany led to their annexation to Piedmont. Napoleon III agreed in exchange for Savoy and Nice. Garibaldi, angered by the cession of Nice (his birthplace), landed in Sicily and Naples with his Thousand Redshirts. Cavour, taking advantage, sent Piedmontese troops (with imperial permission) and annexed most of the Papal States. King Victor Emmanuel of Piedmont convinced Garibaldi to halt before Rome. Veneto was annexed in 1866 through an alliance with Prussia during the Austro-Prussian War. Finally, Rome was annexed in 1870, completing unification. Italy was a new kingdom, organized and centralized, a process sometimes called the “Piedmontization” of Italy. There was resistance in areas like Naples, where traditional forces were strong. Unification and centralization led to the modernization of Italy.