Medieval Europe: Political Spaces and the Carolingian Legacy
ITEM 3. Preliminary Concepts
3.1. The Middle Ages: Assessment and Chronology
The concept of the Middle Ages emerged during the Renaissance, representing a model from which to diverge. It was viewed negatively, marked by humanist and Protestant perspectives as a time of cultural and intellectual barbarism. For them, the Middle Ages began with the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire and the loss of classical works. It was seen as a time of superstition, with practices like the Mass of the Dead, worship of saints, and relics considered corruptions of the true message. This negative view persisted and culminated in the 18th-century Enlightenment. Recent years have seen attempts to recover the medieval period, recognizing it as the foundation of Western Europe until the bourgeois revolutions.
Medieval historiography is divided into two periods:
- High Middle Ages (until the 12th century)
- Late Middle Ages (13th, 14th, and 15th centuries)
The meaning of these divisions depends on the perspective. The High Middle Ages saw legal life unfold in the workshop of praxis (Grossi), a period without lawyers, where law was built through practical experience due to:
- The configuration of manorial estates
- The emergence of autonomous citizen communities
- The establishment of larger political units (realms)
In the Late Middle Ages, there was a shift from the workshop of praxis to the workshop of wisdom, with scholars and jurists recovering classical Roman foundations to substantiate the existing situations. This reflection on the previous period continued until the bourgeois revolutions.
3.2. Setting the Medieval Political Space
3.2.1. The Frontiers of Medieval Europe
Late Antiquity witnessed the disorganization and reorganization of the old regime. Europe’s boundaries were defined culturally:
- South: Border of Islam against the Christian world
- East: Byzantine Empire, with religious and political breaks from the West
- Pagans
Europe was a relatively homogeneous cultural area due to Christianity, but politically divided into barbarian kingdoms. All territories shared the Christian religion in its Latin version, with common social situations:
- Ruralization and construction of large domains, with weak political control over territories dominated by feudal lords
- Church: The only institution spanning the space, manifested through dioceses, monasteries, and the cult of saints
- Surviving discourse in legal and political fields, shaping the concept of royalty
The core of Europe was originally Roman Catholic, primarily in former Frankish territories. The process of Europeanization involved:
- Forging coexistence models (cities, manors, church structures)
- Spreading from the heart of Latin Christendom, fighting against non-Latin Christians
- Assimilating people from outside who attempted to conquer the territory (Hungary, Vikings, Normans)
Barbetta describes the formation of Europe as a process of medieval colonialism, aiming to reproduce a way of life in conquered lands. The geographical demarcation varied with changing frontiers.
3.2.2. Realms of Barbarians to Carolingian Empire
The center shifted from the Mediterranean to northwestern Europe (Frankish lands). The Mediterranean was occupied by Islam, Byzantium, and Latin Europe. Political power as understood by the Romans disappeared, shifting to local aristocracy. The king’s strength depended on establishing loyalty with feudal lords through oaths of allegiance. The king’s patrimonial territory was given to lords in exchange for loyalty, representing a de facto power rather than legal right. This led to the consolidation of large domains, divided into:
- Manor land: Worked for the lord
- Mansos: Small areas where families lived in exchange for fees
Free men were gradually absorbed into large domains. Among the Germanic kingdoms, the Frankish kingdoms played a crucial role, expelling the Visigoths at the Battle of Gaul. The Merovingian dynasty aimed to dominate all Gaul, but their power waned, leading to the rise of the Carolingians. Pepin the Short was anointed king by the Pope, and his son, Charlemagne, continued conquests throughout Gaul, Italy, Saxony, Germany, and Barcelona. Charlemagne’s empire encompassed much of the former Western Roman Empire and protected Europe from invasions. He was crowned emperor on December 25, 800, benefiting the Church, which legitimized his rule. The Church forged the Donation of Constantine to justify its power. A symbiosis existed between the Carolingian Empire and the Church.
Setting Empire
The Empire was internally weak, lacking a unified army and real control over subordinates. The emperor’s power depended on the bonds of solemnity and the prestige of the old Roman Empire. The Empire promoted Christianity through a purge of texts, the development of Caroline writing, and the copying of manuscripts.
Liturgical Reform
The renewal of the empire (imperii renovatio) was linked to the spread of Christianity. Charlemagne’s work was ephemeral, and the empire disintegrated after his death, dividing into West Francia, East Francia, and Germanic lands. Attempts at new empires followed, such as the Ottonian dynasty in the Holy Roman Empire. The Renovatio Romani Imperii implied that the emperor received power directly from God. The Empire remained weak due to territorial limitations. During the High Middle Ages, the concept of a central authority covering the entire space persisted, aiding the Church. Instead of empires, kingdoms consolidated, including England, the Frankish kingdom, Sicily, Scandinavian kingdoms, and Castile in Spain. The Reconquista highlighted the Europeanization processes in Europe.