René Descartes and the Foundations of Modern Philosophy
René Descartes: A New Foundation for Philosophy
Responding to the Challenges of the 17th Century
Formed in scholastic philosophy, Descartes recognized its inadequacy in addressing the issues of his time. He turned to the rigor of mathematics as a model for developing a secure and reliable science. In mathematics, reason itself, independent of experience, provides knowledge. Descartes thus shifted away from empirical observation, seeking in reason the foundation of his method and the justification
Read MoreHuman Nature and Philosophical Anthropology
Item 7: Understanding Human Nature
Rational Nature
Philosophy, born in Greece, reflects on human nature. Humans differ from other beings because of their rationality. Rationality allows us to understand ourselves, our relationships with others, and our place in society. We can choose how we want to live and which values should govern our city-states.
Political Animal
The Greek citizen prioritized civic life. Aristotle believed the polis existed to facilitate a good life. Individual identity was secondary
Read MoreHeidegger’s Philosophy of Being and Nature
The Wonder of Existence
The ancient Greeks recognized that philosophy originates from wonder. We marvel at the existence of things. Heidegger questioned why there is something rather than nothing. What causes things to be? This leads to inquiries about Being. Some attribute it to God, but then the question arises: Who is God? Or who created God? Heidegger suggests that our everyday interaction with things is characterized by “having” them (e.g., rain necessitates an umbrella). However, when we
Read MoreContrasting Perspectives: Plato and the Sophists
Plato vs. Sophists: A Comparison of Philosophical Views
Reality (Ontology)
Sophist Position
There is no objective reality independent of the knowing subject. Being is constantly flowing and changing, reduced to its various appearances or statements to the subjects (phenomenalism).
Platonic Position
Ontological dualism exists (division of sensible and intelligible being). True reality is intelligible because it is universal, necessary, immutable, and independent of the subject (idealism). This reality
Read MoreEthics and Morality in Society
Ethics and Morality: The Science of Custom
Ethics
Ethics is the theoretical reflection on behaviors, norms, and values that shape morality.
Morality
Morality is a set of behaviors, norms, and values that govern a society at a given moment. It also encompasses an individual’s subjective set of behaviors, norms, and values. Objective (societal) and subjective (individual) morality may agree or disagree. If different, the individual may face societal criticism.
Morality concerns the set of rules, beliefs,
Read MoreMan, Morality, and the City of God: Augustine’s Philosophy
Man and the Moral Problem of Evil: Freedom
The human being is conceived as a Platonic-style soul inhabiting a body, which serves as a temporary dwelling. Created by God from the souls of the parents, the soul is superior to the body, simple, and immortal. The true self should aspire to unite with God to achieve true happiness and participate in the highest good. This union requires virtue and love for absolute truth. However, due to the consequences of original sin, man has a natural inclination
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