Human Nature and Philosophical Anthropology
Item 7: Understanding Human Nature
Rational Nature
Philosophy, born in Greece, reflects on human nature. Humans differ from other beings because of their rationality. Rationality allows us to understand ourselves, our relationships with others, and our place in society. We can choose how we want to live and which values should govern our city-states.
Political Animal
The Greek citizen prioritized civic life. Aristotle believed the polis existed to facilitate a good life. Individual identity was secondary to citizenship.
Human Nature and the Soul
For Socrates, the soul is responsible for thinking and moral activity. The body is merely an instrument of the soul. Self-control, achieved through reason, leads to moral virtue and freedom. True happiness is not external but comes from inner spiritual harmony.
The Soul-Body Problem
A central philosophical question is the relationship between the soul and body. Anthropological monism posits a single reality: either material (body) or spiritual (soul). Anthropological dualism, supported by Plato, argues for two distinct realities. Plato believed the soul is immortal and superior to the temporary body.
Humanism
Humanism sought societal renewal and emphasized human potential. It championed freedom of thought and expression against religious dogma. Scientific advancements fostered a belief in human possibility and renewed interest in hermetic thought.
Anthropocentric Thinking
Humanist philosophers viewed education as key to individual development. Humans are free and at the center of the universe. They should strive for dignity and are masters of their own destiny.
The Problem of Two Substances
Descartes used doubt to find an undeniable truth: “I think, therefore I am.” Human reason, independent of faith, can understand and change the world. Descartes described two substances: thinking substance (mind, soul) and extended substance (matter). Modern thought often separates mind and body, prioritizing the mind.
Rousseau
Rousseau valued reason, science, and progress, but criticized his society. He believed progress corrupted individuals and did not lead to happiness. He envisioned two stages of human evolution: the state of nature (pre-social, happy, free) and the welfare state (modern society, characterized by injustice and inequality).
Hobbes
Hobbes, unlike Rousseau, believed human nature is driven by selfishness, competition, and mistrust, leading to a “war of all against all.” He advocated for the state to ensure individual safety.
Kant
Kant emphasized human dignity and rights. He believed humans have two dimensions: natural and rational, with reason being dominant. He explored the possibilities and limits of knowledge, the importance of acting out of duty, and the potential for achieving happiness through reason and freedom.
Marx
Marx argued that socio-economic systems hinder human development. Humans are active beings who shape history and themselves through work. Ideally, work allows for self-expression, but in reality, workers are alienated from their products and each other, reducing human relations to economic interests.
Nietzsche
Nietzsche criticized Western morality, viewing it as decadent and life-denying. He believed Judeo-Christian values promoted weakness and resentment. He advocated for a “will to power” and the embrace of life’s challenges, aiming for the “superman” who creates new values and affirms life’s fullness.