René Descartes and the Foundations of Modern Philosophy
René Descartes: A New Foundation for Philosophy
Responding to the Challenges of the 17th Century
Formed in scholastic philosophy, Descartes recognized its inadequacy in addressing the issues of his time. He turned to the rigor of mathematics as a model for developing a secure and reliable science. In mathematics, reason itself, independent of experience, provides knowledge. Descartes thus shifted away from empirical observation, seeking in reason the foundation of his method and the justification of all knowledge.
The Four Rules of Descartes’ Method
Inspired by mathematical reasoning, Descartes formulated four methodological rules: Evidence, Analysis, Synthesis, and Enumeration. These rules unfold in two fundamental operations of the human mind: intuition, the creation of simple elements of knowledge through reason, and deduction, the linking of these intuitions. Doubt becomes the basis of Descartes’ method, a tool for achieving certainty.
The First Certainty: “I Think, Therefore I Am”
Despite the grounds for doubt, Descartes arrived at an undeniable truth: his own existence as a thinking subject. This first certainty is expressed in the famous dictum: “Cogito, ergo sum” (“I think, therefore I am”). The act of thinking implies the existence of a thinker. This first truth serves as the cornerstone of Descartes’ philosophy. In this intuition, the subject clearly and distinctly perceives their thinking existence, a model for all subsequent certainties.
The Idea of God and the Existence of the World
Certain only of his existence as a thinking being, Descartes turned to his thoughts and ideas. Among these, he identified an innate idea: the idea of infinity, of God. This idea, Descartes argued, guarantees God’s existence as a higher reality, distinct from humanity. God, being infinite, perfect, and true, cannot allow humanity to be irrevocably mistaken in believing in the existence of the world. Therefore, the world must exist.
Three Levels of Reality
Descartes proposed three levels of reality: thinking substance (res cogitans, the self), infinite substance (res infinita, God), and extended substance (res extensa, physical bodies). The defining characteristic of Cartesian substance is its autonomy or independence.
Descartes’ Philosophy in its Sociocultural Context
A Time of Conflict and Uncertainty
The 17th century was a period marked by conflict, driven by religious intolerance and political ambition. The Thirty Years’ War, which Descartes himself witnessed, exemplifies this tumultuous era. The political and religious climate influenced Descartes’ philosophy, which aimed to establish a new foundation for knowledge amidst widespread doubt and uncertainty.
The Rise of Rationalism and Modern Philosophy
Descartes championed reason as the sole instrument of philosophical inquiry. Within the sociocultural context of the Baroque period, characterized by anthropocentrism, Descartes’ rationalism emphasized subjectivism: humans know only their own thoughts, leading to the possibility of doubting both their own existence and the existence of the world. This resonates with the artistic and literary themes of dreams and illusion, prominent in works like those of Shakespeare and Calderón de la Barca.
The 17th century also witnessed the rise of modern science, which became a model for philosophy. Descartes’ emphasis on method reflects this influence, drawing inspiration from the mathematical method. His philosophy marked a radical break from scholasticism, influencing figures like Spinoza and Leibniz and giving rise to 17th-century rationalism. Descartes is considered the father of both rationalism and modern philosophy.
Alongside rationalism, empiricism also emerged in the 17th century. Both share the subjectivism characteristic of modern philosophy, focusing on ideas rather than direct knowledge of things. However, they differ on the origin of ideas: empiricism attributes them to experience, while rationalism locates their source in reason. Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz are the most prominent figures of continental rationalism.