Byzantine and Islamic Art: History and Architecture
Byzantine Art: Historical References
During the 4th century, the Western Roman emperors were forced to divide the empire, creating the Eastern Roman Empire and the West. The Byzantine Empire originated in the city of Constantinople in 324, under the rule of Constantine the Great. Years later, it became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. In the 6th century, during the reign of Justinian, Byzantium reached its peak with great political, economic, military, religious, and cultural clout. Later,
Read MoreFranco’s Final Years: Opposition and the End of Dictatorship
Since 1970, following corruption scandals, subsequent governments grew increasingly weaker. Franco’s aging sparked debate about the dictatorship’s continuation. A split occurred within the regime between the *aperturistas*, who favored reforming the system towards a parliamentary model, and the *inmovilistas*, who opposed any change. A new terrorist organization, the Revolutionary Anti-Fascist and Patriot Front (FRAP), carried out its first attack in Madrid. Franco then separated the Head of State
Read MoreSpanish History: Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship
Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship in Spain: 1923-1930
On September 13, 1923, Miguel Primo de Rivera staged a coup, declaring a state of war. He published a manifesto stating the reasons for the rebellion and was immediately supported by King Alfonso XIII, who commissioned him to form a government, making him directly responsible for the dictatorship. The dictatorship of Primo de Rivera was the political regime that existed in Spain from September 1923 until he resigned on January 28, 1930. He was replaced
Read MoreAncient Greece and Rome: Politics, Society, and the Parthenon
**The World’s Classical Civilizations: Polis and Empire**
**1. Greece**
Features:
- Creation of the political system of democracy in Athens.
- Slave-based economic system.
- Political category of citizens: people with full rights.
- Cultural extension from the Mediterranean through settlements.
- Philosophy as a system of thought.
- Greek art based on an ideal of beauty.
- Polytheistic religion based on the trilogy of Zeus, Hera, and Athena.
Historical Stages:
- Early Greek Civilization: Minoan and Mycenaean cultures.
- Archaic
Cold War Era: Peaceful Coexistence and Conflicts (1954-1975)
The Cold War Era: Peaceful Coexistence and Conflicts (1954-1975)
New Leaders and the Beginning of Détente
Since 1953, a change of leadership occurred in the two great powers. Eisenhower became president of the United States, and that same year Stalin died, succeeded by Khrushchev. Both leaders seemed more willing to negotiate than their predecessors, which initiated a thaw in relations between the two powers. This new stage in relations between the two blocs is called peaceful coexistence. However,
Read MoreThe Carlist Wars and the Reign of Isabella II of Spain
The Opposition to the Liberal Carlist Wars
After the death of Fernando VII, major problems arose over the succession to the throne. The legitimate heir was his daughter, Isabella, but conservatives favored Carlos María Isidro. The absolutist supporters of Carlos were called Carlists. Given that Isabella was a child of three, a period of regency began, first under her mother, Maria Christina, and later under General Baldomero Espartero. Queen Maria Christina was forced to ally with the liberals,
Read More