The Carlist Wars and the Reign of Isabella II of Spain
The Opposition to the Liberal Carlist Wars
After the death of Fernando VII, major problems arose over the succession to the throne. The legitimate heir was his daughter, Isabella, but conservatives favored Carlos María Isidro. The absolutist supporters of Carlos were called Carlists. Given that Isabella was a child of three, a period of regency began, first under her mother, Maria Christina, and later under General Baldomero Espartero. Queen Maria Christina was forced to ally with the liberals, leading to the signing of a Royal Statute. At this time, the First Carlist War erupted between the Isabelline (liberal) and Carlist factions. The Carlist claim involved a question of ideology. They defended inquisitorial Catholicism and attacked the constitutional monarchy and the changes brought about by the liberal revolution. They were supported by rural areas in the north of the peninsula. Some of their notable military leaders were Tomás de Zumalacárregui, Ramón Cabrera, and Rafael Maroto. All major cities were liberal, due to their bourgeois populations. The most important liberal military figure was Espartero. The conflict was characterized by violence and cruelty. The liberal army was larger, although the Carlist forces were also substantial. The war ended with the Embrace of Vergara between Maroto and Espartero, and the Carlists surrendered their weapons. Two more Carlist Wars followed, though they were less significant.
Isabella II: The Organization of the Liberal Regime
The Isabelline regime was a period of great change. The liberal regime was based on three institutions: the Crown, political parties, and the military. These institutions sometimes clashed but united against external threats. The Crown’s functions were limited by the Constitution. Its role was to facilitate relations between the legislative and executive branches, and it had the power to dissolve the Cortes in agreement with the current government. It also had the right to veto the choice of ministers and, consequently, the governing political parties. Isabella II engaged in much political maneuvering, and the moderates held power for most of her reign. As the monarchy was no longer absolute, liberal political parties emerged, divided into moderates (led by Ramón María Narváez) and progressives (led by Espartero and Juan Prim). To the left were the Democrats, an evolution of the progressives, and the Republicans, led by figures like Francesc Pi i Margall and Emilio Castelar. To the right were the Carlists. The army had gained significant importance since the War of Independence and the Carlist Wars. Military leaders often changed governments through pronouncements and also led political parties. This established a regime of generals, including Narváez, Espartero, Leopoldo O’Donnell, and Prim. Constitutions changed with each ruling party. The moderates favored the Royal Statute of 1834 and the Constitution of 1845, while the progressives supported the Constitutions of 1837 and 1856 (the latter was never promulgated). Spanish constitutionalism had a strong ideological component, often referencing previous constitutions. Factors hindering the effective operation of the electoral system included short terms, manipulation of elections, and the dominance of the moderate party, supported by the Queen and facilitated by military pronouncements. The state was controlled from Madrid, with a delegate in each province. Privileges were abolished, the country was divided into provinces, and officials and ministries were established. Communications were improved through roads and railways, and the law was unified. This had advantages, such as territorial equality and centralized management, but also drawbacks, such as the distance between the central government and the areas where decisions were implemented.
Socially, the bourgeoisie triumphed, advocating for freedom, equality, and property rights, often through the process of *desamortización* (confiscation of church lands). Spain experienced a dual economy, with factors of progress such as the financial sector, railways, textiles, and *desamortización*, alongside a largely agrarian and pre-industrial sector.
The Democratic Sexenio (1868-1874): The Reign of Amadeo I and the First Republic
The Revolution of 1868 led to the rupture of the political framework based on the Bourbon monarchy. After its fall, a political alternative was sought, first in the new Savoy dynasty and then, when it lacked support, in the form of a republic. This initiated a period of instability marked by numerous changes and different governments attempting radical reforms in a short time. Following a military coup, a provisional government was formed, headed by Francisco Serrano and Juan Prim. Its main objective was to draft a new constitution, for which it convened the Cortes through universal male suffrage for those over 25. The Constitution of 1869 established a democratic monarchy, and a new king had to be chosen to replace the Bourbons. During this period, Serrano served as regent, and the insurrection in Cuba began. In 1870, Prim’s candidate, Amadeo of Savoy, was elected King of Spain. The following year, Amadeo swore to uphold the Constitution. He received little support from the Spanish people. His reign was brief and tumultuous, lasting only three years. In 1872, the Third Carlist War broke out, a federalist insurrection occurred in Cuba, and the governing coalition fell apart. These problems, coupled with the loss of Amadeo’s key supporter, Prim, who was assassinated, and the lack of agreement between unionists and progressives, led Amadeo I to abdicate the Spanish throne. During Amadeo’s reign, the labor movement gained momentum, and the First International was established in Spain. His initial head of government was Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, who fell in 1872 and was replaced by Serrano. The new government attempted to dissolve the Cortes, but Amadeo opposed it. This forced Serrano to resign, leaving Manuel Ruiz Zorrilla in power. Amadeo’s resignation was accepted, and Pi i Margall advocated for a republican solution. The National Assembly proclaimed a federal republic, with Estanislao Figueras initially in power, supported by the unitary faction. A few months later, the Constituent Cortes drafted a new constitution, and Pi i Margall assumed power. However, the Cantonalist uprising soon erupted across Spain, leading the Republican president to resign. He was replaced by Nicolás Salmerón, who, unable to sign death sentences, was in turn replaced by Castelar. Castelar led a minority government with the support of monarchists and ended up dismantling the federal system. To prevent this, General Manuel Pavía staged a coup, entering the Cortes on horseback. The Republic then fell into the hands of General Serrano, initiating a period of dictatorship. The government attempted to resolve the two most pressing issues: Cantonalism and the Carlist conflict. These disorders fueled the growth of the Alfonsine party, ably led by Antonio Cánovas del Castillo. Cánovas wanted Alfonso XII to return to Spain through a popular election, but General Arsenio Martínez Campos staged a coup, and Alfonso XII entered Spain in early 1875, marking the beginning of the Bourbon Restoration.