Spain Under Ferdinand VII: Absolutism and the Liberal Triennium
The Absolutist Six Years (1814-1820)
The War of Independence concluded with the Treaty of Valençay in December 1813. This treaty marked the end of the French occupation of Spain, and Ferdinand VII dethroned Joseph Bonaparte, recovering the Spanish crown. The new king, a staunch absolutist, returned to Spain. He was initially welcomed, and swiftly overturned the Court of Cadiz and its constitution, aiming to restore the Old Regime, mirroring actions taken across much of Europe after the Congress
Read MoreWar Crisis and Revolution in Spain (1800-1814)
The War Crisis of the Old Regime and Revolution (1800-1814)
Old Regime: Stage before the French Revolution, Modern.
Absolute Monarchy: The king has all the powers, supposedly given by God.
Stratified Society: Society is divided into estates. The law favored the privileged, who lived more comfortably. Two classes:
- Privileged: Nobility and high clergy (not taxed).
- Not Privileged: Peasants, bourgeoisie, and lower clergy (pay taxes).
Manorial Economy: Wealth was in the land, which was in the hands of
Read MoreSpain in the 19th Century: A Timeline
Napoleonic Invasion (1808-1814)
Napoleon Bonaparte invaded the Iberian Peninsula and imposed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as king, replacing Carlos IV. This triggered the War of Independence (1808-1814), ending with the expulsion of the French army. During the war, Spaniards rose up in arms, met in the Cortes of Cadiz, and drafted the Constitution of 1812. This new text created clashes between liberals, who advocated for the implementation of the constitutional text, and absolutists, supporters
Read MoreWorld War II: Causes, Economic Impact, and Aftermath
World War II: Causes, Impact, and Consequences
The Seeds of War: Expansionism and Allied Passivity
Axis Expansion: Germany and Italy embraced fascist ideologies, while Japan adopted a militarist stance. These nations faced limitations in economic expansion within their borders. Germany, burdened by the Treaty of Versailles, and Italy and Japan, dissatisfied with post-World War I settlements, saw forceful expansion as the solution to their economic constraints.
Allied Passivity: The Allied powers (Britain,
Read MoreKey Figures: Renaissance, Reformation, Global Empires
Key Figures of the Renaissance and Reformation
Italian Renaissance
- De Medici: The wealthiest European family of their time; Cosimo de Medici was a dictator over Florence’s government.
- Lorenzo the Magnificent: Cosimo’s grandson; ruled as a dictator but maintained the appearance of an elected government.
- Castiglione: Author of *The Courtier*, a book advising young men on proper behavior.
- D’Este: Born into the ruling family of Ferrara; skilled in politics and a renowned art collector.
- Donatello: Sculptor
Rómulo Betancourt and Rómulo Gallegos: Venezuelan Leaders
Rómulo Betancourt: A Key Figure in 20th-Century Venezuelan Politics
Rómulo Betancourt is recognized as one of the most important Venezuelan political figures of the 20th century. His participation in Venezuelan politics began in 1928 when, as a student leader, he addressed, along with other outstanding young people at the time, the first popular demonstration against the dictatorship of Juan Vicente Gómez. Betancourt was one of the staunchest opponents of *Gomecismo*, a condition that cost him
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