Spain Under Ferdinand VII: Absolutism and the Liberal Triennium
The Absolutist Six Years (1814-1820)
The War of Independence concluded with the Treaty of Valençay in December 1813. This treaty marked the end of the French occupation of Spain, and Ferdinand VII dethroned Joseph Bonaparte, recovering the Spanish crown. The new king, a staunch absolutist, returned to Spain. He was initially welcomed, and swiftly overturned the Court of Cadiz and its constitution, aiming to restore the Old Regime, mirroring actions taken across much of Europe after the Congress of Vienna with the Holy Alliance.
Two documents reflect the prevailing atmosphere in Spain: the Manifesto of the Persians and the Decree of Valencia. The atmosphere of the time favored absolutism, and the king was widely acclaimed. Ferdinand VII attempted to return society to the Old Regime, restoring all privileges to the Church and nobility.
Instead of taking effective measures to alleviate the severe economic crisis caused by the War of Independence, the king and his ministers focused on persecuting, imprisoning, and/or executing the pro-French for collaborating with Joseph Bonaparte, and the Liberals for challenging the absolute monarchy. The Liberals were forced into exile or hiding, seeking support from liberal sectors of the army to launch uprisings against the king. In 1816, there was a failed assassination attempt on the king. Between 1814 and 1819, there were numerous failed liberal pronunciamientos (Espoz y Mina, Díaz Porlier, Lacy, and Milans del Bosch).
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
Liberals, with the support of the bourgeoisie, the army, and Freemasonry, had previously attempted to implement the Constitution of 1812. In 1820, another attempt occurred, led by Colonel Riego, who commanded an army in Las Cabezas de San Juan. This army was meant to embark from Cadiz for America, where Spanish colonies were in revolt. Riego proclaimed the Constitution of 1812. The king sent an army, which ultimately joined the pronouncement. The king was forced to swear allegiance to the Constitution, issuing a manifesto stating, “Let us march frankly, and I the first, down the constitutional path.”
During the Triennium, the Liberals continued the reforms initiated in Cadiz. With the advent of economic liberalism, landowners gained absolute freedom to set working conditions. This worsened the living conditions of many farmers, leading them to support the absolutists.
The Liberal government faced opposition from several fronts:
- Internal Division: Liberals were split into moderates and radicals, who disagreed on the king’s role in government.
- The King: Ferdinand VII never truly respected his oath. He sought help from absolutist countries and funded some absolutist uprisings.
- The Church: The Church, consistently opposed to liberalism, was penalized by the withdrawal of its privileges.
- Freemasonry: Having supported the Liberals’ rise to power, Freemasons now sought to control them.
Amidst these plots, the liberal regime was caught off guard by the military intervention of the Holy Alliance. They decided to send troops to restore King Ferdinand VII’s absolute power. In April 1823, without a declaration of war, the Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis entered Spain, occupied Madrid, and reached Cadiz. Absolute power was restored, and the king nullified the decrees issued by the liberal government during the previous three years.