Fernando VII: Absolutism, Liberalism, and the Spanish Crisis
The Era of Fernando VII: Absolutism Versus Liberalism
The return of Fernando VII marked the end of liberal reforms.
The First Restoration (1814 to 1820)
Fernando VII returned in 1814 and was welcomed by the people. Encouraged by the Manifesto of the Persians, issued by army officers, the Church, and conservative politicians, he moved to overturn the Constitution and dissolve the Cortes. On May 4, 1814, the king led a coup, issuing a decree that nullified all reforms approved by the Cortes. Many liberals
Read MoreSimón Bolívar’s Travels and Transformation in Europe
How were Bolívar’s travels in general?
During his first trip, Bolívar met María Teresa Rodríguez del Toro, whom he married after fulfilling numerous requirements, including the King’s permission. After their marriage in 1802, his wife returned to Venezuela and died eight months later from a serious illness. This left Bolívar alone and deeply sorrowful. He also learned about Mexico and Cuba in Spain and France.
His second trip was a distraction from his early widowhood, lasting three years, during
Read MoreSpanish Golden Age: Art, Empire, and Decline
Dutch Artists
Rembrandt
He was a Dutch painter and engraver. Art history considers him one of the greatest Baroque masters of painting and engraving, being surely the most important artist in the history of the Netherlands.
Flemish Artists
Rubens
A Baroque painter from the Flemish school. His exuberant
War of the Spanish Succession: Causes and Outcomes
War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714)
The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) was the last of the general European wars caused by King Louis XIV‘s efforts to extend French power. In America, the conflict corresponding to this period was known as Queen Anne’s War (see French and Indian Wars).
Causes of the War
The precarious health of the childless King Charles II of Spain left the succession open to three principal pretenders:
- Louis XIV, on behalf of his eldest son, a grandson of King
Spanish Bourbon Dynasty: Succession, Reforms, and Enlightenment
War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714)
The War of the Spanish Succession was a major European conflict that occurred between 1701 and 1714, triggered by the death of Charles II of Spain without a direct heir. The enthronement of Philip V, a Bourbon, alienated Great Britain, the Dutch Republic, and Austria, who feared the union of the Spanish and French thrones. The Crown of Aragon supported Archduke Charles of Austria. Philip V, backed by France and Castile, ultimately secured his recognition
Read MoreByzantine & Carolingian Empires: History & Culture
The Byzantine Empire: Legacy of Rome
The achievements made by Rome during the Republic and the Empire contributed to the formation of a great empire around the Mediterranean. It survived invasions by Germanic peoples until 395 AD. Then:
- The Western Roman Empire disappeared in 476 when Odoacer, leader of the Heruli, deposed the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus.
- The Eastern Roman Empire, later known as the Byzantine Empire, survived the Germanic invasions and lasted until 1453. The name comes