Ferdinand VII’s Reign and Hispanic American Independence
The Reign of Ferdinand VII
The Restoration of Absolutism
Liberal distrust of the monarch and a predisposition to accept the new constitutional order led Ferdinand VII to travel to Madrid to feign acceptance of the constitution. However, absolutists saw this as their best chance to return to the Ancien Régime, and quickly organized to demand the restoration of absolutism (Manifesto of the Persians). Ferdinand, by Royal Decree of May 4, 1814, annulled the constitution and announced a return to absolutism.
Read MoreThe Rise and Fall of the British Empire: A Concise History
The Genesis of the British Empire
The British Empire began before the formal creation of the United Kingdom, originating with English colonial settlements during the reign of Henry VIII.
Early Conquests: Wales, Scotland, and Ireland
England had already engaged in wars to conquer Wales and Scotland. However, the conquest of Ireland followed a different path. The English Crown sent soldiers and lords to Ireland, seizing lands from Gaelic clans. Over time, this led to significant demographic changes,
Read MoreAncient Iberia & Al-Andalus: Kingdoms & Cultures
Pre-Roman Peoples of the Iberian Peninsula
During the Iron Age, various indigenous cultures developed in the Iberian Peninsula. In the south and east were the Iberians. The rest of the peninsula was settled by Indo-European peoples, except for the Vacones.
Iberian Culture (Turdetani)
- Agricultural society.
- Had an alphabet.
- Urban development.
- Aristocracy and tribal organization.
- Practiced incineration of the dead and buried them.
- Archaeological remains: “Lady of Elche”.
Celtic Culture (Vacceos, Astures)
- Mastered
Spanish Liberalism: War of Independence and Cadiz Cortes
How Liberalism Took Hold in Spain
After Ferdinand VII’s death, a succession war erupted. Carlos María Isidro, Ferdinand’s brother, claimed the throne, backed by absolutists.
Isabella, Ferdinand’s daughter, was the legitimate Queen. Liberals supported her on the condition that she would establish liberalism upon winning the war. She won, and liberalism was subsequently established.
The War of Independence Explained
The war spanned from 1808 to 1814. Key factors included the Treaty of Fontainebleau,
Read MoreSocial, Economic Shifts: Europe’s Transformation (1870-1914)
Political and Social Change
Population and Migration
During this era, Europe’s population surged from 300 to 440 million. This overpopulation led to high unemployment and widespread social unrest. Consequently, many Europeans migrated to other countries seeking employment and improved living conditions.
The Development of the Labor Movement
The labor movement gained considerable momentum. New political parties advocating for labor rights and principles emerged in countries like France, Britain, Italy,
Read MoreFrench Revolution & Rise of Napoleon (1789-1815)
The French Revolution (1789-1799)
Peasant revolts had been occurring since May 1789. Throughout the summer, riots broke out, and the houses of the wealthy were attacked. This period became known as the Great Fear. Many noblemen attempted to flee France. Most people still desired a king, but one constrained by the laws of the people—a constitutional monarchy.
The National Assembly’s first action was the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adopted in August 1789. The Assembly also
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