Understanding Freedom, Determinism, and Moral Action
What is Freedom?
Freedom, in its external sense, refers to the outward appearance of the target action or behavior. However, in its internal, subjective sense, freedom refers to deliberation and decision. We must distinguish between two senses of freedom: freedom in the negative sense, equivalent to the absence of constraints, and freedom in the positive sense, which equates to power.
A person is free in the external negative sense if there are no restrictions in the external environment preventing
Read MoreRelativism and the Philosophy of Knowledge
Criticism of Relativism
For the Sophists, truth is only accessible through opinion, and opinion depends on the subject. Relativism is encapsulated in the phrase, “Man is the measure of all things.” The truth or falsity of something depends on the opinion of the subject.
The Doctrine of the Point of View
The importance given by Ortega to the point of view is still valid in three areas: hermeneutics, the sociology of science, and knowledge.
- Hermeneutics: Hermeneutics believes that the interpreter cannot
Plato and Aristotle: Theories of Forms and Hylomorphism
Plato: The Theory of Forms
Plato’s theory of forms posits a distinction between the world of appearances (the sensible world) and a realm of perfect, unchanging forms. He argued that the physical world we perceive is constantly changing, and therefore, true knowledge cannot be derived from it. Instead, true knowledge comes from understanding the eternal and immutable forms.
Plato’s theory suggests that the objects we perceive in the sensible world are merely imperfect copies or reflections of these
Read MoreDavid Hume’s Philosophy: Knowledge, Causality, and Substance
David Hume
Theory of Knowledge
Hume defined perception as everything that is present in our minds, and he identified two types:
- Impressions: Knowledge gained through the senses.
- Ideas: Representations or images of perceptions in thought, which are derived from impressions and are less intense.
Impressions serve as the criterion of truth for ideas because an idea is true if we can identify it as coming from an impression. Hume also distinguished two ways of knowing:
- Knowledge of relationships among ideas
Nietzsche’s Philosophy: Key Concepts and Western Decadence
Nietzsche’s Philosophy: Key Concepts
Becoming
Becoming is often used synonymously with evolving. Some conceptions of becoming include:
- The Eleatic solution: Seeking to account for evolution through denial.
- The Pythagorean and Platonic solution: Separating entities that move from motionless realities.
- The Heraclitean solution: Proclaiming that reality is, in essence, becoming.
Nietzsche understood the history of philosophy very well and considered that becoming was incomprehensible to reason. Therefore,
Read MorePlato and Aristotle: Soul, Change, and Knowledge
Plato’s Concept of the Soul and Reminiscence
Plato, building upon the Socratic thesis of anamnesis, argues for the immortality of the soul. Anamnesis suggests that learning is a form of recollection. Socrates addresses the question of dualism, asserting the soul’s superiority over the body. He posits that humans are composed of a divine and immortal part (the soul) and a corruptible, mortal part (the body). The soul resembles the divine and immutable, while the body is subject to change.
Reminiscence,
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