Spain’s Progressive Biennium (1854-1856) and the Moderate Decade
The Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)
Conflict and Revolution
The period begins with a conflict between the government and the Count of San Luis and the Senate, with the latter emerging victorious. The Revolution of 1854 unfolded in two phases:
- Moderate Phase: Pronouncements in Alcalá (June 16) for generals Dulce and O’Donnell. The Battle of Vicálvaro between rebels and government troops brought progressives into action. The Manifesto of Manzanares (July 7), drafted by Cánovas del Castillo, advocated
The Spanish Civil War and the Basque Autonomy
The Civil War in the Basque Country
In 1936, the Basque Country was divided. Álava sided with the Nationalists, while Bizkaia and Gipuzkoa sided with the Republic. The Carlist Requeté played a decisive role in Álava and Navarre, where some right-wing military officers revolted. In Bizkaia, the governor remained passive. Basque nationalism largely aligned with the Republic.
The Defense Board of Gipuzkoa was composed of forces from the Popular Front, the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV), and the anarchist
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Animal Attacks: When Wildlife Encounters Turn Dangerous
As humanity expands and natural habitats shrink, interactions with wild animals increase. While most encounters are peaceful, some unfortunately result in attacks. Here are four such incidents:
Leopard Attacks in India
Maharashtra, India, has seen a surge in leopard attacks. In January, three men were attacked by a leopard searching for food. Newspapers report a “leopard storm” as these attacks become more frequent. Habitat destruction forces
Read MoreFranco’s Spain: Pillars of the Regime and Political Evolution
Franco’s Spain: Basic Principles of the National Movement (1958)
This act, promulgated by the French and hailed by prosecutors, outlined the ideological principles of the regime as permanent and unalterable.
Organic Law of the State (1967)
This “pseudoconstitution” sought to modernize the regime. It strengthened the power of Franco and established a monarchy as a successor “of the national movement.” In 1969, Juan Carlos of Bourbon took the oath before the courts as heir to the Spanish crown.
Social
Read MoreSpanish Civil War: International Impact and Republican Factions
The Meaning of the Spanish Civil War
For international observers, the Spanish Civil War represented a conflict between Fascism, Democracy, and Communism. Internally, it was a confrontation between established dominant groups, who had gained power during the Restoration, and emerging groups of workers and the bourgeoisie, who desired democracy. The reforms of the Republic posed a threat to these dominant groups, leading them to abandon legal and parliamentary means in favor of a coup.
The Internationalization
Read MoreRestoration Spain and the Crisis of 1898
The Great Peace and Germany’s Rise
Restoration Spain coincided with a period of peace in Europe known as the Great Peace. Germany, having achieved political unity and significant industrial development, held a leading position on the continent under Chancellor Bismarck. Through a system of alliances with Austria, Russia, and Italy, Bismarck secured Germany’s dominance. Meanwhile, France navigated the Third Republic, and Great Britain enjoyed the Victorian era.
European Imperialism and US Expansion
Europe
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