Swiss Identity and Political Division: ESA Referendum
The Narrow Margin of the ESA Vote and Swiss Identity
The narrow margin of profit for proponents of ESA membership showed that the traditional foundations of Swiss identity were no longer so stable. The outcome of the referendum on the ESA revealed the extent to which society was divided between supporters and opponents of modernization and between linguistic communities (German-speaking Swiss were against, while French-speaking Swiss were in favor). This reopened the historic divide between French-
Read MoreCalifornia Gold Rush & the American Civil War
California Gold Rush and its Impact (1848)
Traits of the era: An inventive turn of mind, restless, nervous energy; and that dominant individualism, working for good and evil.
1848: Routes to California:
- Voyage around the tip of South America
- Overland routes
- Panama shortcut
Methods of Mining:
- Cradle
- Pan
- River mining
Lynch Law: Punishment of supposed criminals without trial.
Act for the Government and Protection of Indians: Removal of Indians, turning them into indentured servants.
Immigrants from: Oregon, China,
Read MoreAlfonso XII’s Reign and the Restoration in Spain
Reign of Alfonso XII
Alfonso XII’s reign began after the pronouncement of Martínez Campos and Cánovas, following negotiations for Isabella II to abdicate in favor of her son. Alfonso XII entered Spain in 1874 to rule under a model of parliamentary monarchy. This marked the beginning of a new political system, the Cánovas system. This system aimed for stability, as previous models had failed, and economic modernization. However, the ultimate consequences were intolerance, social injustice, and
Read MoreRise of Nazism: From Weimar Republic to Totalitarian Regime
The Origins of Nazism
The Weak Weimar Republic
After Germany’s defeat in World War I, the provisional government repressed the Spartacist Revolt, led by revolutionaries seeking to establish a communist regime in Germany. Subsequent elections led to the creation of a constitution in Weimar, establishing Germany as a democratic republic. However, the extreme left considered the regime too moderate, while the extreme right believed the new regime betrayed Germany by accepting the Treaty of Versailles.
Read MoreStalin’s USSR: Dictatorship, Economy, and Civil War
The Stalin Era (1928-1953)
In 1928, Stalin became the head of state, establishing a dictatorship supported by the Soviets and the Communist Party. He introduced a new constitution in 1936, solidifying his control over the media and suppressing criticism. Key features of Stalin’s dictatorship include:
- The Cult of Personality: Stalin was presented as a god-like figure, using propaganda to attract the people.
- A Mass Party: Strong Russian nationalism was promoted, requiring the entire population’s involvement.
Spain’s Silver Age: Politics, Art, and Culture (1900-1939)
The Popular Front (February-June 1936)
The new government, led by Santiago Casares Quiroga:
- Decreed an amnesty for the prisoners of the 1934 Revolution.
- Reinstated reforms.
Radicalization between left and right grew. A new political party of extreme right-wing ideas was founded: Falange Española. It demanded a fascist regime for the country. The political confrontation caused the Tragic Spring of 1936, with street fights, attacks, and assassinations between the Falangistas, the communists, and the