Russian Revolution & WWI Peace: Causes, Program & Treaties
The Russian Revolution
February 1917 Revolution
Causes: Following the declaration of war, the Russian Empire mobilized millions of soldiers. Low morale of the troops led to fears of a collapse of the front. The increasingly unpopular Tsar refused to reform and could not postpone reforms until he had no support.
Consequences: The monarchy collapsed without resistance, forming a dual power structure: an interim government took power, hoping to convene a constituent assembly. Allied powers promised Russia
Read MoreAlfonso XII’s Reign: The Canovist System Explained
The Reign of Alfonso XII and the Canovist System
The Canovist system was a system of government whose leading exponent and creator was Cánovas del Castillo. After the republic, when a new order was necessary, monarchists knew that the return of Isabella II to the throne would not be well-received. Thus, the Manifesto of Sandhurst was written in favor of Alfonso XII, projecting a monarchy that sought order, patriotism, religion, and Catholic liberalism based on a constitutional and democratic regime.
Read MoreSpain: Mutiny of Aranjuez to New American Nations’ Problems
Mutiny of Aranjuez
The Mutiny of Aranjuez was triggered when Spain signed a treaty with Napoleon (Treaty of Fontainebleau), authorizing Napoleonic armies to enter Spain to attack Portugal. The French crossed the Pyrenees in February 1808, causing irritation among the Spanish population. French troops were stationed at strategic points.
On March 18, 1808, a riot broke out in Aranjuez. The royal family feared a retreat into mutiny. The popular participation, led by the nobility and clergy, sought the
Read MoreSpanish Second Republic: Reforms of the Biennium
Biennium Reforms (1931-1933)
Between December 1931 and September 1933, the government, headed by Manuel Azaña and composed mostly of Left Republicans and Socialists, urged a reform program, begun in the constitutional period, with the goal of modernizing and democratizing Spanish society.
The Religious Question
One of the primary goals of the Republic was to limit the influence of the Church and secularize Spanish society. This was reflected in the Constitution, which provided for a non-denominational
Read MoreSecond Spanish Republic: Biennium Reform & Challenges
Biennium Reform: A Period of Change
The Biennium Reform began under the government of Azaña, with a similar composition to the provisional government, including radicals.
Land Reform
Land reform was proclaimed to address the problem of land access, which had led to violent clashes between laborers and the Civil Guard. There was strong repression of peasants who took land without permission, and peasants attacked the Civil Guard. The objectives were to end landlordism, prevent absenteeism, and reward
Read MoreSpain: Economic Expansion, Social Groups & Religion (1900-1930)
The Economy (1900-1930)
From 1900 to 1913, Spain experienced economic expansion driven by three key factors:
- The repatriation of capital from former colonies, especially Cuba, following the defeat of 1898.
- A significant influx of foreign capital.
- The development of private banking, with the founding of banks such as Vizcaya, Hispanic American, and Spanish Credit, alongside Bilbao, which was founded half a century earlier.
Impact of the First World War
Spain’s neutrality during the First World War presented
Read More