Spain: Mutiny of Aranjuez to New American Nations’ Problems
Mutiny of Aranjuez
The Mutiny of Aranjuez was triggered when Spain signed a treaty with Napoleon (Treaty of Fontainebleau), authorizing Napoleonic armies to enter Spain to attack Portugal. The French crossed the Pyrenees in February 1808, causing irritation among the Spanish population. French troops were stationed at strategic points.
On March 18, 1808, a riot broke out in Aranjuez. The royal family feared a retreat into mutiny. The popular participation, led by the nobility and clergy, sought the dismissal of Godoy and the abdication of Charles IV in favor of his son, Fernando. Those who wanted to kill Godoy united. This caused a deep crisis in the Spanish monarchy. Charles IV wrote to Napoleon, asking for help to regain the throne that his son had taken. The Spanish monarchy’s inability to manage the situation led to the French invasion and occupation.
Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
Rafael del Riego, in Seville, rebelled in front of the soldiers awaiting embarkation to fight in the American colonies. He proclaimed the Constitution and toured Andalusia. A new government was immediately formed, and elections to the Cortes were called. Legislative actions included freedom of industry, the establishment of tithes, and decreased regulation of industry and commerce. The National Militia and armed volunteer corps were reconstituted.
These reforms met with opposition from the monarchy. Fernando VII paralyzed laws and conspired against the government to recover his power. The new measures provoked discontent among the peasants, as they did not facilitate access to land. The old lords remained proprietary, and peasants were expelled without pay. Additionally, there was no substantial drop in church taxes. The nobility drove the revolt against the rulers of the Triennium. In 1822, absolutist uprisings occurred. Divisions arose among liberals (moderate vs. excited).
Restoration of Absolutism (1814-1820)
Fernando VII distrusted the liberal monarchy and was reluctant to accept the new constitutional order. The nobles and clergy saw this as their chance to return to the Ancien Régime (AR) (Manifesto of the Persians). Fernando VII, assured of the liberals’ weakness, issued a decree on May 4, 1814, annulling the Constitution and launching a crackdown against liberals. The country was destroyed, and the restoration of the Ancien Régime failed to address the issues. Military uprisings by liberals showed the discontent and failure of the absolute monarchy. Repression was the monarchy’s only response.
Abolition of the Inquisition
The Inquisition aimed at persecuting any ideology that deviated from Catholicism. The French Revolution reactivated the repressive apparatus to pursue revolutionary ideas. José I and the Cadiz Parliament abolished the Inquisition, deeming it incompatible with the Constitution (courts created protectors of the faith). It was restored in 1814 and abolished again in 1820 (Juntas de Fe). The regency of Maria Cristina abolished the faith boards in 1834, and the Inquisition in 1835.
Spain and the Americas at the End of the 18th Century
The Bourbons showed concern for their overseas territories, leading to a period of prosperity and reactivation of trade. Economic growth fueled independence movements among the Criollos (American-born Spaniards), influenced by Enlightenment thought and projects.
1808: The Independence Process
The Criollos initially remained loyal to Fernando VII. The most significant secessionist movements were in:
- Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata (San Martín declared Argentina’s independence in 1810)
- Viceroyalty of New Granada and Venezuela (Simón Bolívar)
- Mexico (Miguel Hidalgo, José María Morelos)
The Cortes of Cádiz recognized some specifications and sent an army. In 1814, Fernando VII regained control of New Granada and Mexico. The Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata (Paraguay in 1811 and Argentina in 1816 became independent nations) stimulated the growth of the liberation movement. Chile’s independence in 1818 gave rise to the republics of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Panama. The Mexican independence movement (Agustín de Iturbide) gained support from the church and achieved independence. Peru and Bolivia also became independent.
Problems of the New American Nations
The independent republics faced several problems:
- Failure to form a powerful unified America. Local leaders led to wars and fragmentation.
- The independence movement abandoned the Indian and Black populations, perpetuating problems from the Spanish domain.
- Britain and the U.S. replaced Spain as dominant powers.