Russian Revolution & WWI Peace: Causes, Program & Treaties
The Russian Revolution
February 1917 Revolution
Causes: Following the declaration of war, the Russian Empire mobilized millions of soldiers. Low morale of the troops led to fears of a collapse of the front. The increasingly unpopular Tsar refused to reform and could not postpone reforms until he had no support.
Consequences: The monarchy collapsed without resistance, forming a dual power structure: an interim government took power, hoping to convene a constituent assembly. Allied powers promised Russia would continue the war. A council of workers and soldiers favored peace and profound social transformation.
The Bolshevik Program
To aid the Bolshevik party, which favored peace, the German government allowed Soviet leader Lenin, exiled in Switzerland, to pass through its territory. Reaching Petrograd in April 1917, Lenin summarized the Bolshevik program in a thesis:
- Supreme power delivery to the Soviets.
- Immediate withdrawal from the war at any price.
- Redistribution of land and collectivized industries.
The October Revolution
In the summer of 1917, a new provisional government headed by Kerensky, a moderate socialist, attempted to wage war. In October, the Bolsheviks seized power in Petrograd. Kerensky’s government fled, and he was arrested. The Congress of Soviets, now dominated by the Bolsheviks, came into power. It formed a government of People’s Commissars. The Bolsheviks ignored the results of democratic elections and dissolved the assembly that had just opened, thus starting the Bolshevik dictatorship.
The Civil War
A civil war ensued, in which Bolshevik government troops were confronted by counter-revolutionaries (Whites) until their defeat in 1921. The Bolshevik victory in the Civil War rested on two pillars:
- The Red Army, created by Trotsky, was disciplined and well-equipped. It re-established control over most of the country.
- The political police (Cheka) directed repression internally, instituting a reign of terror.
The Organization of Peace
Wilson’s Fourteen Points
In January 1918, President Wilson of the United States presented his Fourteen Points, whose basic ideas were:
- Freedom of navigation and commerce.
- The right of peoples to self-determination, leading to the dismemberment of multinational empires and the design of a new map of Europe.
- Waiver of secret diplomacy, which was blamed for the outbreak of war.
- Foundation of a League of Nations to resolve conflicts peacefully.
The prevailing French position was more intransigent and demanded reparations for the damage. Territories that had belonged to the Russian Empire (the new republics of Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Romania) now formed a sanitary cordon.
The Peace Treaties
The Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles forced Germany to take responsibility for the war. Germany had to return Alsace and Lorraine to France, consent to the occupation of the Saarland, surrender its colonies, and accept the demilitarization of the Rhineland and the reduction of its army and arsenal.
The Austro-Hungarian Empire
The Austro-Hungarian Empire disintegrated, leading to the creation of the national state of Czechoslovakia. Italy won only small territorial gains. Romania gained territory from Hungary and Russia. Hungary and Austria were reduced to small, landlocked states.
Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire
Bulgaria had to cede its Aegean coast to Greece. The Ottoman Empire disappeared and was replaced by a republic. Arab territories were divided between British and French mandates.
The Balance of the Great War
The First World War produced the highest mortality in a conflict known until then. Europe was left politically and morally weakened. The League of Nations was born severely compromised because its driver, President Wilson, failed to secure U.S. involvement. The USSR was not invited, and defeated countries like Germany and Turkey were not admitted until years later.