Decline of the Spanish Habsburgs (17th Century)
The Validos
The validos were royal favorites who essentially acted as kings due to the monarchs’ inability to govern. Kings relied on validos, primarily nobles, because they struggled to manage the complexities of governing. All validos attempted to govern outside of established councils, creating networks of clients (often family and friends appointed to civil service positions), selling offices (leading to corruption), and isolating the kings from reality.
- Philip III – Duke of Lerma and Duke of
The Rise of Authoritarian Monarchy in 15th Century Europe
The Authoritarian Monarchy: Catholic Kings
15th Century Europe
Throughout the 15th century, Europe experienced a demographic and economic resurgence, overcoming the severe crisis of the late Middle Ages. The political power shifted from the nobility to the monarchs. The disappearance of major epidemics and the recovery of agricultural lands led to sustained population growth. Increased demand stimulated agricultural production, which had previously stagnated. Maritime routes in the Mediterranean,
Read MoreThe Iberian Peninsula: Roman Conquest and Reconquista
The Roman Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula and Romanization
Stages of the Conquest
Conquest of the East and South (218-197 BC)
The Roman conquest began during the Second Punic War against Carthage. Carthaginian settlements in the Iberian Peninsula served as bases for attacks on Rome. The Roman victory at Ilipa in 209 BC ended Carthaginian presence and established Roman rule in the east and south.
Conquest of the Central and West (155-133 BC)
Roman expansion faced resistance from local populations,
Read MoreMedieval Iberian Peninsula: Politics, Society, and Expansion
Political Organization: Castile and Aragon
Castile
Three major political entities dominated the Iberian Peninsula: the kingdoms of Portugal, Leon, and Castile. Leon and Castile experienced periods of unification and separation throughout the 11th and 12th centuries, ultimately uniting under Ferdinand III. The kingdom of Castile encompassed Galicia, the lordship of Biscay, and the provinces of Alava and Guipuzcoa.
The 14th and 15th centuries were marked by political instability. While Alfonso XI
Read MoreAl-Andalus: A History of Muslim Spain
The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: Al-Andalus
Development Policy: Conquest, Emirate, and Caliphate of Cordoba
In 711, a largely Muslim invasion of Visigothic Spain occurred, establishing a vast empire with its capital in Damascus. The highest authority was the caliph, belonging to the Umayyad clan. Islamic troops swiftly conquered the peninsula (711-715), marching until their defeat by the Franks at Poitiers in 732.
Initially, political power in Al-Andalus rested with a Damascus-dependent governor.
Read MoreSpanish Political Evolution (1808-1814): From Charles IV to the Constitution of Cádiz
Spanish Political Evolution (1808-1814)
Reign of Charles IV (1788-1808)
Context: The French Revolution (1789), the rise of the Republic, and Napoleon’s ascendancy.
- 1793-1795: War of the Pyrenees between Spain and Revolutionary France.
- 1795: Peace of Basel. End of the War of the Pyrenees. Return to family pacts (England/France).
- 1805: Spanish naval defeat at Trafalgar.
- 1807: Treaty of Fontainebleau between Napoleon and Spain (Godoy). Plan to occupy Portugal (English ally) and partition it between Spain
18th Century Spain: Bourbon Reforms and Enlightenment
Chronology
- War of Succession: 1700-1714
- Loss of Gibraltar: 1704
- Peace of Utrecht: 1713
- Death of Philip V: 1746
- Start of Fernando VI’s Reign: 1746
- Transfer of the Casa de Contratación to Cadiz: 1717
- Esquilache Riots: 1766
- Expulsion of the Jesuits: 1767
- American Free Trade Act: 1778
- French Revolution: 1789
Key Enlightenment Figures and Ideas
Thinkers
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Popular sovereignty; the general will.
- Baron de Montesquieu: Separation of powers (legislative, executive, judicial).
- Voltaire: Limited monarchy;
Disorders of Consciousness: A Comprehensive Overview
Disorders of Consciousness
I. Quantitative Alterations of Consciousness
These disorders involve a loss or diminution of consciousness, classified by severity:
Drowsiness (Mild)
Characterized by slowed responses, difficulty with attention, and decreased spontaneous activity. Orientation is preserved.
Drowsiness (Moderate)
Increased tendency to sleep, but easily aroused. May exhibit shiny or greasy skin.
Sopor
The individual remains asleep and only awakens to specific stimuli. May speak or perform simple
Venezuela After Gran Colombia: 1830
Study of the Republic of Venezuela (1830)
History of Gran Colombia
After the failure of the Second Republic of Venezuela and Simón Bolívar’s short stay in New Granada as military commander, he reflected on the causes of previous failures and how to achieve lasting independence. He concluded that the final defeat was due to Spanish efforts to prevent recapture, but creating a strong republic capable of challenging imperial powers was crucial.
Separation of Venezuela from Gran Colombia
With the national
Read MoreRoman Law of Obligations: A Comprehensive Guide
Roman Law of Obligations
Item 33: Long Lease and Surface
Enfiteusis
Enfiteusis is a real right, transmissible both during life (inter vivos) and upon death (mortis causa), that allows the holder to cultivate another’s land in exchange for an annual fee (rent).
Superficie
Superficie differs from a lease by allowing building on land outside the payment of an annuity, also called pensio or salarium.
Item 35: Obligatio
General Theory
According to Justinian, obligatio is a legal relationship by which we are
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