Al-Andalus: A History of Muslim Spain
The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: Al-Andalus
Development Policy: Conquest, Emirate, and Caliphate of Cordoba
In 711, a largely Muslim invasion of Visigothic Spain occurred, establishing a vast empire with its capital in Damascus. The highest authority was the caliph, belonging to the Umayyad clan. Islamic troops swiftly conquered the peninsula (711-715), marching until their defeat by the Franks at Poitiers in 732.
Initially, political power in Al-Andalus rested with a Damascus-dependent governor. The territory was divided into coras, governed by Muslims. The capital was established in Cordoba, and frontier areas, called marks, were created. Mountain peoples of the north received little attention.
The Abbasid clan murdered the Umayyads and seized the caliphate, moving it to Baghdad. Abd al-Rahman I, a surviving Umayyad, fled to Al-Andalus and became Emir, independent of Baghdad. He established a dynasty lasting two centuries. However, from 879 onward, numerous riots and independence demands arose, leading to a power crisis. Emirs relied on mercenaries and gained prestige through aceifas (plundering campaigns).
In 929, Amir Abd al-Rahman III proclaimed himself Caliph in Cordoba, restoring the unity of the Islamic state and recovering Islamic hegemony. He fostered an artistic and cultural renaissance in Cordoba and Medina Azahara. His legacy was continued by his son, Al-Hakam II. After Al-Hakam II’s death, caliphs held symbolic power. The hajib (regent) al-Mansur and his children ruled (976-1009), imposing a military dynasty. Mansur’s death triggered a power struggle, culminating in the caliphate’s end in 1031.
The Eleventh-Century Crisis: Taifa Kingdoms and North African Empires
In 1031, the Taifa kingdoms (factions) emerged, smaller territories than the caliphate. Three phases can be distinguished, separated by North African invasions. The most important Taifas were those on the border, in the Levant, and in Seville. They possessed high cultural, artistic, and scientific levels but were militarily and politically weak.
These Taifas paid tribute to threatening Christian kingdoms and allied with North African peoples who invaded and conquered them. The Almoravids arrived in the eleventh century, conquering and reunifying Al-Andalus. However, their orthodox Christian beliefs hindered progress, and their empire crumbled, giving way to the Almohads from Morocco in the twelfth century.
The Almohads established their capital in Seville and were even more intransigent than the Almoravids. Their leader proclaimed himself caliph. All Taifas were subjugated, but neither group could stop the Christians, who defeated them at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212).
The third Taifa period followed, with Christian occupation in the thirteenth century, leaving only Granada. The Marinids attempted to enter the peninsula without success. The Kingdom of Granada, encompassing Almeria and Malaga, survived until 1492, facing Castile, the Marinids, and internal crises. It was a rich kingdom with cultural wealth until its fall due to the Catholic Monarchs and internal strife. Boabdil, the last ruler of Al-Andalus, surrendered in 1492.
Economic and Social Organization
Al-Andalus’ economy relied on agriculture, incorporating new techniques like irrigation ditches and wells. Increased irrigated agriculture in river valleys boosted productivity and population. These crops were close to urban centers, which managed them. Certain crops saw intensified production, and new ones were introduced. Sheep farming increased, revitalizing mining.
Society was highly urbanized, with many cities built on ancient Roman sites. They were connected by Roman roads and sea routes, with trade networks across the Mediterranean. Cordoba, Seville, and Toledo were major cities. Cities had residential areas, narrow streets, walls, mosques (the main one being the Aljama mosque), a souk (market), and possibly a castle. Jewish quarters housed Jews, and suburbs led to orchards.
Towns had representatives with administrative, political, and judicial powers. Other religions had their own leaders and judges. The economy was based on bartering and currency. State surplus and taxes funded state agencies.
Al-Andalus had significant ethnic and religious diversity. The dominant group was Muslims, ranked by prestige: Arabs from the East, Berbers from North Africa, and Muladis (Christians converted to Islam). Jews, Mozarabs (Christians under Muslim rule who paid taxes and were tolerated), followed. After Granada’s fall, remaining Muslims were called Mudejars, facing forced conversion or exile.
The Cultural Legacy
Intellectual life in Al-Andalus reached advanced levels, inspired by the Eastern Arab model. Intellectuals wrote in Arabic and appreciated Persian culture, Greco-Roman philosophy, and culture. Andalusian culture gained originality, especially during the Taifa era, enjoying intellectual freedom. This was the golden age of Andalusian culture until Christian and North African invasions led to the exile of intellectuals.
Andalusian culture influenced Christian nations and mainland Europe, particularly in literature, religion, law, history, geography, medicine, philosophy, and natural sciences.
The Mosque and Palace in Hispano-Muslim Art
Muslims avoided depicting human images or using music in religious creations. Mosques featured abstract art, employing calligraphy, geometric patterns, filigree, and stylized animal figures. Decorative arts and architecture flourished.
Notable examples include the mosques of Cordoba and Seville, which retain the courtyard and part of the minaret (the Giralda). Civil architecture from the Umayyad period includes the Palace of Madinat al-Zahra and the Alhambra in Granada, integrating artificial construction with nature (vegetation, water) through arcaded courtyards, pools, fountains, and gardens.