The Rise of Authoritarian Monarchy in 15th Century Europe
The Authoritarian Monarchy: Catholic Kings
15th Century Europe
Throughout the 15th century, Europe experienced a demographic and economic resurgence, overcoming the severe crisis of the late Middle Ages. The political power shifted from the nobility to the monarchs. The disappearance of major epidemics and the recovery of agricultural lands led to sustained population growth. Increased demand stimulated agricultural production, which had previously stagnated. Maritime routes in the Mediterranean, Baltic, and North Seas resumed their activity. The development of trade resulted in increased craft production and the growth of cities that served as important commercial centers and ports. The need for currency exchange stimulated the exploitation of mines in central Europe. The growth of trade and craft production resulted in the accumulation of significant wealth in the hands of the bourgeoisie. The economic power of the bourgeoisie was based not on land ownership but on capital investment in productive assets. This marked the beginning of commercial capitalism. During the 15th century, kings sought to impose their authority, creating an authoritarian monarchy.
The Catholic Monarchy
In 1469, Prince Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile married, later becoming the respective monarchs. Despite their union, the two crowns remained independent, maintaining their own laws and institutions. However, they acted jointly in foreign affairs. Castile, larger and more populous than Aragon, experienced a period of prosperity. The monarchs conquered the Nasrid kingdom of Granada, formed a dynastic union with Portugal, and annexed Navarre in 1512. Their international policy had two main focuses:
- The Canary Islands were conquered during the 15th century. Queen Isabella I accepted a proposal from Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor, to find an alternate route to the Indies, as the Mediterranean was controlled by the Ottoman Turks. Months later, Columbus reached the Americas. The discovered lands were granted to Castile, but the monarchs signed the Treaty of Tordesillas with Portugal, dividing the world into spheres of influence. These new lands provided vast resources and led to a significant mixing of cultures and races.
- France invaded Naples, which was under Aragonese control. Ferdinand successfully isolated the French king, forcing the French troops to retreat. In North Africa, Ferdinand conquered several territories before being defeated by Tunisian forces.
Consolidation of Royal Power
The authoritarian monarchy established the king’s authority above all other powers. The position of viceroy was created to represent the monarch in each territory of the crown.
Castilian Authoritarian Monarchy
Ferdinand created the Holy Brotherhood, an armed force responsible for pursuing criminals. The Cortes (parliament) maintained its advisory role, but the influence of nobles as advisors decreased with the creation of councils composed of legal experts appointed and paid by the king. A permanent professional army controlled by the monarchy was also established. To ensure control over justice, the Royal Audience (high court) was created. A reinforced tax collection system and royal accounting were instituted. Corregidors were appointed as royal officials to exercise administrative and governmental functions.
Religious Uniformity
Jews were forced to convert to Christianity; those who refused were persecuted and eventually expelled from Spain in 1492. Cardinal Cisneros ended religious tolerance and enforced mandatory baptisms. Muslims in Castile were forced to convert to Christianity or face exile. To maintain Catholic orthodoxy and monitor converts, the Inquisition was established, becoming a primary instrument for religious control.
Social and Economic Organization
The primary economic activities were agriculture and livestock.
Castile
The Castilian economy remained focused on livestock, particularly sheep. Castilian wool was the main export. Large herds required extensive pastures, which favored livestock owners over farmers. The monarchy supported breeders and enacted laws protecting the Mesta, the Castilian breeders’ organization. This hampered agricultural expansion, hindering economic growth.
The Slow Recovery of the Crown of Aragon
The crisis of the late Middle Ages had reduced the population and weakened the economy. Ferdinand implemented measures to address the crisis. He aimed to end peasant unrest in Catalonia by creating the Arbitral Sentence of Guadalupe, which abolished certain feudal rights. He also enacted laws to promote commerce, navigation, and manufacturing. In Aragon, agriculture continued to dominate, and the feudal system was reinforced. Valencia, with its port activity, was the most prosperous territory economically.
Social Groups
The nobility and clergy were the privileged classes, possessing land and herds. The nobility’s economic power increased due to primogeniture, which prohibited the sale of family property and mandated inheritance by the firstborn son. The majority of the population consisted of landless peasants. Small and medium-sized farmers were numerous in northern Castile, while landless peasants (taxpayers) predominated in Andalusia. In Catalonia, the Sentence of Guadalupe granted farmers land ownership in exchange for paying a tax to the lords. In cities, a middle class engaged in commercial and craft activities began to develop.