Crisis of ’98: Loss of Spanish Empire
III. The Crisis of 1898: Liquidation of the Colonial Empire
1. The Wars in Cuba and the Philippines
Following the Ten Years’ War, which concluded with the Pact of Zanjón, the Spanish government had 17 years to implement reforms in Cuba. However, these reforms did not prevent further unrest and a push for independence.
The 1891 tariff reinforced Cuba’s role as a market for Spanish goods, resulting in an unequal trade relationship that upset both the island and the United States. The U.S. threatened
Read MoreHume’s Empiricism: Perceptions, Ideas, and Critique of Metaphysics
Perception: Hume’s Empiricism
Hume believed that all knowledge originates from sensory experience. He argued that the human mind consists of perceptions, categorized as impressions and ideas, differentiated by their intensity. Vivid impressions are what we feel, hear, see, love, and hate. Ideas are fainter copies of these impressions, employed during reasoning. Hume rejected rationalist theories of innate ideas, asserting that all ideas stem from prior sensory impressions.
He further divided perceptions
Read MoreUnderstanding the Cell Cycle, Mitosis, and Meiosis
Cell Cycle
The cell cycle is a sequence of events in a cell’s life, leading to its division and duplication. It consists of two main stages: interphase and cell division (mitosis or meiosis).
Interphase
Interphase is the period between cell divisions, where the cell grows and prepares for division. It constitutes the majority (about 90%) of a cell’s lifespan. Interphase is divided into three periods:
- G1 (Gap 1): Cell growth and synthesis. The cell reaches a restriction point (R), after which it commits
The Scientific Method and Knowledge
The Scientific Knowledge
What makes knowledge like astronomy and medicine scientific, while astrology and traditional healing are not? What distinguishes scientific knowledge, and what is the scientific method? Answering these questions helps explain the prestige and certainty attributed to science and its strong influence on society.
Specific Nature of Scientific Knowledge
“Specific nature” refers to the set of characteristics that distinguish scientific knowledge from other forms of knowledge. These
Read MoreEuropean Political Landscape: Pre- and Post-World War I
Nature and Historical Context of the Map
This political map illustrates the evolution of European territories before and after World War I, showcasing a significant historical moment in time and space.
Pre-World War I
The first map depicts Europe before the war. The Triple Alliance consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, while the Triple Entente comprised France, Great Britain, and Russia. These alliances emerged from William II’s attempts to destabilize the Franco-Russian alliance, coupled
Read MoreThe Right to Punish: Limits and Legality in Criminal Law
The Right to Punish (Ius Puniendi)
Historical Context
Historically, the State’s right to punish (ius puniendi) was often exercised with absolute power, leading to a lack of discretion and potential abuse. This traditional approach has evolved, raising questions about the nature of ius puniendi as a right or power, and the extent to which the State’s sovereignty allows for its exercise.
Two Manifestations of Ius Puniendi
The ius puniendi manifests in two ways: the ability to create laws and the ability
Read MoreThe Bolshevik Revolution and Its Aftermath: From Tsarist Russia to Soviet Power
The Bolshevik Revolution and Its Aftermath
The First Steps of the New Regime
In October 1917, the Bolshevik Party seized power in Petrograd and Moscow, but their control didn’t extend throughout the former Russian Empire. Poland and much of the Baltic coast remained under German occupation. Initially, the Bolsheviks focused on maintaining power, anticipating revolutions across Europe. Like other Marxists, Lenin believed in the eventual establishment of global socialism, though he recognized the
Read MoreEvolution: A Comprehensive Overview
Fixism (19th Century)
- Species are immutable, remaining unchanged over time.
- Current species are unchanged descendants of those that first appeared on Earth.
- No species evolves.
- Fossils belong to extinct species due to natural disasters. Present species are descendants of those that survived.
Creationism (20th Century)
- Earth is approximately 6,000 years old.
- Species were created by God and have remained unchanged.
Evolutionism
- Creatures have evolved throughout Earth’s history, becoming increasingly differentiated.
Chemical Equilibrium and Le Chatelier’s Principle
Chemical Equilibrium
The chemical equilibrium is a reversible process where the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal, resulting in constant reactant and product concentrations over time. When all species are in the same phase, the equilibrium is homogeneous.
Homogeneous Equilibria: Law of Mass Action
In a homogeneous equilibrium, all chemical species are in the same phase. A general homogeneous equilibrium is represented as: aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD. At a given temperature, a constant ratio
Read MoreMedieval Europe: Society, Feudalism, and Christianity
The Early Middle Ages
Charlemagne
Crowned king of the Franks in 768, Charlemagne built a Christian state. The Frankish kingdom became the largest in Europe, and Charlemagne was crowned emperor by the Pope, marking a moment of political unification in Western Europe. However, the empire was short-lived, dividing into three kingdoms upon Charlemagne’s death.
Viking Invasions
Western Europe faced invasions from Vikings and Muslims. Between the 8th and 10th centuries, Vikings and Normans, originating
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