The Bolshevik Revolution and Its Aftermath: From Tsarist Russia to Soviet Power
The Bolshevik Revolution and Its Aftermath
The First Steps of the New Regime
In October 1917, the Bolshevik Party seized power in Petrograd and Moscow, but their control didn’t extend throughout the former Russian Empire. Poland and much of the Baltic coast remained under German occupation. Initially, the Bolsheviks focused on maintaining power, anticipating revolutions across Europe. Like other Marxists, Lenin believed in the eventual establishment of global socialism, though he recognized the challenges of implementing it in a less developed nation like Russia. The Bolsheviks implemented significant measures to consolidate their rule and address popular demands.
The First Decisions of the Bolsheviks
On Land
Starting in October, to gain peasant support, the Bolsheviks deviated from their initial socialist program. Instead of nationalizing or collectivizing land, they confiscated it and redistributed it through local Soviets. Private land ownership was abolished, and employing wage labor was prohibited. These actions aligned with the rural poor’s desire for small, independent farms, a process that had already begun, often anarchically, in many areas.
On Labor
Factory committees, or councils, were legally established in many companies following the departure of owners. This aimed to place production under worker control, though in practice, the Soviets, and later the Bolshevik party, coordinated these committees. Banks were nationalized, an eight-hour workday was introduced, and international debts from the Tsarist regime were repudiated.
On War
The Bolsheviks sought to end the war through a just peace “without annexations or indemnities.” Continued fighting was untenable due to widespread disruption and desertion within the army. Faced with these circumstances, Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in March 1918, accepting German-imposed terms. This treaty resulted in significant territorial losses, including Finland, Estonia, Lithuania, Poland, parts of Belarus, Ukraine, and Bessarabia (now Moldova). These losses also meant a substantial reduction in population and economic resources, including 75% of mineral production. Following the Central Powers’ defeat in World War I, most of these territories gained independence (except for Bessarabia, which became part of Romania). However, many of these newly independent states did not survive the Russian Civil War, leaving only Poland, Finland, and the three Baltic states independent.
On State Organization
The Bolsheviks established a Council of People’s Commissars, a worker- and peasant-led government primarily composed of Bolsheviks. Lenin served as chairman, with Trotsky and Stalin as Commissars for Foreign Affairs and Nationalities, respectively. While theoretically accountable to the Soviets, the government operated independently with considerable power. The disciplined Bolshevik party maintained tight control over both the government and the Soviets. The Constituent Assembly, convened before the October Revolution, was forcibly dissolved, and legislative power was transferred to the Congress of Soviets. The Bolsheviks decreed the equality of all peoples within Russia and recognized their right to self-determination. This aligned with socialist principles of international solidarity but led to several nations seceding from the former Tsarist empire. In an attempt to spread the revolution globally, a declaration modeled after the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was drafted. It proclaimed Russia as a Soviet republic of workers, soldiers, and peasants—a universal republic of the oppressed, regardless of nationality. Simultaneously, it defined the Russian Soviet Republic as a federation of republics. Finally, a constitution for the socialist federal republic was approved.
Civil War and Its Aftermath (1918-1921)
During the Russian Civil War, the Bolsheviks faced a diverse coalition of anti-Bolshevik forces. These included the White Russian Army (led by former Tsarist generals and supported by the Orthodox clergy and conservative groups), revolutionary groups marginalized by the Bolsheviks (such as socialist and anarchist armies in southern Ukraine), peripheral nations seeking independence or territorial expansion, and Allied forces (including French, British, American, and Japanese troops). The Allies imposed a cordon sanitaire around Russia, isolating it internationally and refusing recognition due to its revolutionary ideology and withdrawal from the war against Germany. The Bolsheviks ultimately triumphed due to the disunity of their adversaries, support from peasants and workers, the formation of the Red Army, and brutal internal repression. The Bolshevik party, renamed the Communist Party, became the sole permitted political force and controlled the Russian economy. A “war communism” policy directed all resources towards the war effort, increasing state control over the economy. This led to widespread discontent and uprisings, such as the Kronstadt rebellion in 1921, which were violently suppressed.
The Failure of the Revolution Outside Russia
The Bolsheviks anticipated widespread worker support for their revolution across war-weary Europe. The October Revolution did have a global impact, inspiring social and democratic reforms in many countries. Rumors of a worker- and peasant-led state in Russia influenced revolutions, revolts, and strikes across Europe between 1918 and 1921. These included the uprisings that ended the German and Austro-Hungarian empires, waves of strikes in Spain, France, and Italy, and communist insurrection attempts like the Spartacist uprising in Germany and the proclamation of Soviet republics in Munich and Hungary. The Spartacus League, formed by German SPD dissidents opposed to the war, aimed to establish a socialist Germany. Its leaders, Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, were killed after the failed Berlin uprising in 1919.