Crisis of ’98: Loss of Spanish Empire
III. The Crisis of 1898: Liquidation of the Colonial Empire
1. The Wars in Cuba and the Philippines
Following the Ten Years’ War, which concluded with the Pact of Zanjón, the Spanish government had 17 years to implement reforms in Cuba. However, these reforms did not prevent further unrest and a push for independence.
The 1891 tariff reinforced Cuba’s role as a market for Spanish goods, resulting in an unequal trade relationship that upset both the island and the United States. The U.S. threatened to restrict imports of Cuban sugar and tobacco if Spain didn’t change its tariff policy.
José Martí founded the Cuban Revolutionary Party, and the separatist revolt began on February 24, 1895 (The Cry of Baire). The uprising spread from the east to the west of the island. The Spanish government, led by Cánovas del Castillo, dispatched General Martínez Campos to quell the rebellion. His lack of success led to his replacement by General Valeriano Weyler, who employed harsher tactics. Weyler’s methods resulted in high civilian and military casualties, and the war devastated Cuba’s economy, destroying factories, plantations, and railways.
After Cánovas’ assassination in August 1897, a new Liberal government attempted a strategy of conciliation. However, the independence movement, backed by the U.S., refused to negotiate, and the Spanish government declared war.
Concurrent with the Cuban War was the Philippine Revolution (1896-1897). Spain’s presence in the Philippines was weaker than in the West Indies, primarily focused on religious orders, resource extraction, and trade with China. The Philippine uprising was brutally suppressed, and its leader, José Rizal, was executed.
U.S. Intervention
In 1898, using the sinking of the USS Maine in Havana harbor as a pretext, the United States declared war on Spain. The U.S. quickly intervened in Cuba and the Philippines, defeating the Spanish forces and expelling Spain from its colonies.
The Treaty of Paris, signed in December 1898, marked Spain’s relinquishment of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, which then fell under American influence and control.
2. Consequences of 1898
The defeat of 1898 led to widespread disappointment and frustration in Spain, shattering the myth of the Spanish empire. The foreign press portrayed Spain as a declining nation with an ineffective military and a corrupt political system.
a) Economic and Political Implications
Despite the magnitude of the “disaster,” the immediate economic and political consequences were less severe than anticipated. Spain avoided a major political crisis or state bankruptcy, and the Restoration system survived. The crisis was primarily moral and ideological, causing a significant psychological impact.
Nationalist movements gained momentum, especially in the Basque Country and Catalonia, where the industrial bourgeoisie, disillusioned with the dynastic parties, began supporting nationalist groups that advocated for autonomy and modernization.
b) Regeneration
The colonial crisis spurred movements that criticized the Restoration system and called for modernization. These movements advocated for abandoning the myths of the past, modernizing the economy and society, improving literacy, dismantling the caciques (political bosses), and ensuring electoral transparency.
The “disaster” unified a group of intellectuals known as the Generation of ’98 (Unamuno, Valle-Inclán, Pío Baroja, Azorín, etc.). They shared a deep pessimism, criticized Spain’s backwardness, and reflected on Spain’s meaning and historical role.
The military defeat also shifted the military’s mentality, leading them to blame political inefficiency and corruption for Spain’s loss.
c) The Failure of Government Regeneration
With Sagasta’s government discredited, Queen Regent María Cristina appointed Francisco Silvela, a Conservative leader, who called for elections. The new government included figures outside traditional politics, such as General Polavieja and regionalist Manuel Durán y Bas. They initiated reforms, including decentralization plans, administrative changes, and budgetary adjustments, such as increased taxes on staples and new taxes to address war debts. However, this “regeneration” lasted barely a year.
The government remained in power until 1901, when María Cristina handed power back to the Liberals. The promises of “regeneration” remained largely rhetorical, with minimal impact on political life. The Restoration system, though shaken, survived the disaster largely intact.