Fundamentals of Epidemiology: Population, Health, and Prevention
1) Why Study Epidemiology?
Epidemiology studies the distribution and frequency of disease in a community to control or eradicate it. It compares frequencies, quantified by statistics, using a method similar to the scientific method.
2) Scientific Method Steps
The scientific method has four steps:
- Observation: Analyzing a patient’s physical and mental aspects, including symptoms.
- Hypothesis Formulation: Developing possible illnesses and causes.
- Verification: Conducting studies for diagnosis.
- Conclusion:
Cancer Types, Symptoms, Prevention, and Risk Factors
Breast Cancer
Symptoms
- Nodule in the breast
- Changes in breast skin texture
- Asymmetry
- Retracted nipples
- Changes in breast size or shape
- Nipple discharge
Prevention
- Reduce animal fat consumption
- Weight control
- Regular self-exams and medical check-ups
- Avoid breast trauma
Treatment
- Surgery
- Chemotherapy
- Radiation
- Mammography
- Mastectomy
Risk Factors
- Family history of inflammatory or chronic lesions
- Early menstruation and late menopause
Uterine Cancer
Symptoms
- Heavy or irregular menstrual bleeding
- Difficulty urinating
- Vaginal infections
- Pelvic
Rise of Fascism and World War II: Causes, Ideologies, and Global Conflict
Crisis of Democracy and the Emergence of Fascism
3.1 The Crisis of Democracy
Read MoreWorld War I, pacifism, and optimism acknowledged the triumph of freedom. The empires of the defeated acknowledged the right to independence by various nationalities, and the creation of the League of Nations assumed that war would not recur. However:
- The Russian Revolution encouraged the world proletariat to the revolutionary conquest of power and the replacement by the dictatorship of the working class.
- The harsh economic
Foundations and Criteria of Ethics: Human Dignity and Moral Truth
Philosophical Methods in Ethics
- From Aristotle’s ethics, linked with human nature. Aristotle considered reason the specificity of human nature; thus, ethics is identified with living according to reason.
- Aristotle used an inductive process, studying his own morals and those of other countries.
- Scholastic philosophers derived ethics from a moral nature, referring to God as supreme legislator.
- Kant used a transcendental method, acknowledging a moral law in our hearts and studying that knowledge.
- Max Scheler
Rise of Italian Fascism: Mussolini’s Power and Transformation
Fascist Dictatorship
In 1925, Mussolini began transforming Italy into a totalitarian, fascist state, where the party and state were fully identified. A law appointed Mussolini prime minister, granting him extensive powers: to appoint ministers, legislate by decree, and control the entire executive branch. In 1926, Rocco’s law banned all parties and unions except for the fascists. Parliament’s authority passed to the Fascist Grand Council (the party’s governing body), and parliament was replaced by
Read MoreTechnological Transformations: From Industrial Revolution to Modern Age
Technology in the Modern Age
At the end of the Middle Ages, cities were the main feature of Western life. In 1600, London and Amsterdam had populations over 100,000, and Paris twice that amount. Germans, English, Spanish, and French began to build global empires. In the early eighteenth century, capital resources and banking systems were well-established in Britain to start investing in mass production techniques, satisfying middle-class aspirations. The Industrial Revolution began in England due
Read MoreKey Concepts in Instrumental Conditioning
Glossary of Instrumental Conditioning Terms
Drag Instinctive: Gradual deviation of instrumental behavior from required responses. It is influenced by species-specific responses or instinctive reactions to the enhancer and other experimental stimuli.
Punishment: Instrumental conditioning procedure with a positive contingency between the instrumental response and an aversive stimulus. If the response occurs, the aversive stimulus is received; if not, it is avoided.
Instrumental Behavior: Activity performed
Read MorePlastic: Properties, Types, Manufacturing, and Applications
The term plastic, in its most general sense, applies to substances of different natures and structures that lack a fixed boiling point and possess elasticity and flexibility over a temperature range, allowing them to be molded and adapted to different forms and applications. In a narrower sense, however, it denotes certain synthetic materials obtained by polymerization or artificial propagation of carbon atoms in the long molecular chains of organic compounds derived from oil and other natural substances.
Read MorePhotosynthesis: Light and Dark Reactions, Calvin Cycle
Photosystems
Photosystem I (PSI)
Able to absorb light of λ <700 nm.
Photosystem II (PSII)
Capable of absorbing light of λ <680 nm.
If a photon hits an electron in a photosynthetic pigment molecule, the electron captures the photon’s energy and jumps to a more distant orbit. It can be lost, ionizing the atom. The molecule, now oxidized, seeks electrons, which are supplied by the photolysis of water.
Absorption of light by the reaction center chlorophyll causes it to release an electron, which travels
Industrial Revolution: Factors and Capitalist Economy Development
Industrial Revolution
We call the phenomenon of industrialization a revolution because its effects were more profound than any other economic change, except for the onset of the Agricultural Revolution. We could define it as a cumulative number of innovations in production and social relations, generating a new way to produce and distribute, with a capacity for growth that would revolutionize economic activity. For the first time in human history, humankind could produce increasing amounts of goods
Read More