Foundations and Criteria of Ethics: Human Dignity and Moral Truth
Philosophical Methods in Ethics
- From Aristotle’s ethics, linked with human nature. Aristotle considered reason the specificity of human nature; thus, ethics is identified with living according to reason.
- Aristotle used an inductive process, studying his own morals and those of other countries.
- Scholastic philosophers derived ethics from a moral nature, referring to God as supreme legislator.
- Kant used a transcendental method, acknowledging a moral law in our hearts and studying that knowledge.
- Max Scheler elaborated a phenomenological theory of values.
All the above methods are useful, but we are interested in drafting an ethical theory, a moral universality. We use a hypothetical-deductive method, as in science. Ethics appears first as a theory to solve moral problems, drawn from inductive knowledge from history, psychology, culture, or any other science aspiring to be sufficiently corroborated and reach universal acceptance.
The study of moral lessons of history provides a basis to affirm the ethical model we suggest, desirable for people released from major obstacles: extreme poverty, fear, ignorance, dogmatism, and hatred of neighbor. These barriers are crucial.
The Foundation of Ethics
Grounding ethics in history and practical experience concerns many thinkers. Some fear that without a foundation beyond human intelligence, ethics becomes arbitrary and subject to political impositions. They believe an immutable foundation, valid for all, can only be found in human nature or divine revelation. Neither option solves the problem, as the concept of “nature” is often shaped by what one wants to find, and appealing to God is not valid for ethics, as it is based on faith, not reason.
A third solution distinguishes between “nature” and “second nature.” In this, we find natural law. Ethics is based on this second nature, established by the basic axiom of practical reason: All human beings, by virtue of being, have dignity and fundamental rights derived from that dignity.
Human Dignity
From the human perspective, moral dignity is essential. Violating a human is treating them as a means or tool. A person always has purpose and value, not a price to be bought. The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights states: “Freedom, justice, and world peace are based on the recognition of the inherent dignity and equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family.” Freedom, justice, and peace are universally desirable values, depending on the recognition of the dignity of all.
Human dignity is not a scientific fact; “dignity” does not belong to the vocabulary of science. Many philosophers describe human freedom or rights, but describing reality does not create plausible rules. A justifiable solution: Dignity does not proceed without intelligence and reason, specifically the act of asserting, as a constitutional fact, the dignity of every human being, and being willing to act accordingly.
The Ethical Project of Humanity
- From our intelligence, we have realized a broad way of life: individual rights, non-discrimination, and the use of reason to resolve conflicts.
- We may not agree on subjective happiness, but we can agree on objective happiness: how we live and interact with others, affirming values that enhance our ability to lead a life.
The foundation is affirming the dignity of all human beings by virtue of being. It is the basic axiom we must accept and defend. The fundamental axiom of ethics has content. Ethics designs a common project, drawing on humanity’s lessons. To build it, we begin by stating the necessary foundation: the dignity of the person. Dignity is the intrinsic value of a person, regardless of other characteristics. It consists of possessing rights.
Criteria for Ethical Truth
Evidence and Errors
Evidence, as we see clearly, cannot always be trusted. We have all experienced error; hence, the importance of knowing how to measure the strength of evidence. Ethics deals with the most terrible and glorious aspects of human beings. We need to distinguish truth from falsehood to avoid tragedy.
While fundamental values like freedom, peace, equality, and justice are at stake, some argue we cannot agree on universal ethical principles. Often, disagreements are not about fundamentals but about interpreting accepted principles. We must not hide the fact that we have a strong ethical theory to consider as having universal value.
Just as we study criteria for truth in science, we must study them in ethics. While many think one’s conscience is the ultimate moral judge, there are strict criteria.
ยท Essential Criteria:
- Subjective evidence: The subject must appreciate the goodness of an ethical theory’s content. However, subjective evidence can be false and overridden by stronger evidence.
- Internal evidence clarification: Strong evidence, when analyzed, can be fragile. We must distinguish between intended meanings and values like freedom’s foundation.
- Acceptance: An ethical standard is not well-founded just because everyone accepts it, though acceptance is an important guarantee of legitimacy.
Ways to increase the strength of evidence:
- The moral experience of humanity, defended by Jacques Maritain, serves to check models that have been tested.
- Arguments of an impartial observer (Adam Smith, John Rawls): We can achieve a “unanimous choice of a theory of justice” if we adopt a “veil of ignorance,” judging regardless of social place, personal interests, or preferences.
- Argumentative dialogue (K.-O. Apel, J. Habermas): Justice can only be achieved after reasoned discussion involving all concerned parties.
- Universality (Kant): Any ethical standard should be able to serve as a universal standard of conduct (categorical imperative).
- Consistency: A theory cannot be contradictory.
- Consistency with other truths: An ethical model must be consistent with science, forming a system with other scientific truths.
- Efficiency: The effectiveness of ethical standards in solving problems is a criterion of their truth.
- Prediction of good consequences: An ethical theory is confirmed if it predicts good consequences from its application. Eliminating the five major barriers identified by the law of ethical progress can anticipate good consequences.
- Argument ad horrorem: Similar to a mathematical proof by contradiction. If the model is not fulfilled, ethical horror will occur.