Rise of Italian Fascism: Mussolini’s Power and Transformation
Fascist Dictatorship
In 1925, Mussolini began transforming Italy into a totalitarian, fascist state, where the party and state were fully identified. A law appointed Mussolini prime minister, granting him extensive powers: to appoint ministers, legislate by decree, and control the entire executive branch. In 1926, Rocco’s law banned all parties and unions except for the fascists. Parliament’s authority passed to the Fascist Grand Council (the party’s governing body), and parliament was replaced by an advisory body of fascist corporation leaders. Provincial and municipal officials were appointed directly by the government from among the fascists. A political police force was created to suppress opponents. The regime gained support by signing the Lateran Pacts (1929) with the Catholic Church, resuming relations between Church and State. The Pope recognized the Kingdom of Italy and Rome as its capital, and the Italian State agreed to pay the Vatican an annual rent. Papal support was a significant strength for Fascism, contributing to its popularity, along with its nationalist and expansionist policies. Remilitarization was promoted, and a campaign began to recover territories like Nice and Savoy. Expansionist policies aimed at acquiring colonial territories in Europe and Africa. Economically, Fascism was characterized by strong state intervention, protectionism for national industry, and economic autarky. The Institute for Industrial Reconstruction was created to aid troubled companies by buying shares, leading to state control of key sectors (electricity, steel, shipbuilding, chemicals, etc.). In 1934, the state adopted protectionist policies and strict trade controls. Autarkic policies led to some domestic industry renewal, but industrial production suffered from high costs and low quality. Light industry and consumer goods stagnated. Fascism invested in public works to curb unemployment. The link between the private and state sectors primarily benefited a powerful oligarchy identified with the National Fascist Party. Italians’ standard of living remained below the European average, real wages fell, and unemployment rose. Fascism sought to control and direct all aspects of society, encouraging membership in the party or fascist trade unions. Organizations were established for compulsory registration of children through adulthood and for organizing free time outside of work. Control extended to education: primary school teachers had to wear black shirts, and university staff swore loyalty to the regime. Catholicism became the official religion; divorce was banned, and religious education became mandatory. Newspapers, books, and radio were imbued with fascist values. The regime favored new media like radio and cinema, creating movie studios for propaganda films and an extensive network of state radio stations.
March on Rome and Rise to Power
The National Fascist Party demonstrated its organizational strength during the 1922 general strike called by leftist forces. They informed the government that if it couldn’t stop the strike, they would replace the state. They maintained postal, train, and bus services, gaining the middle class’s sympathy. The decisive move to seize power was the March on Rome in October 1922. They announced that if the government couldn’t restore order, they would march to the capital and claim power. Thousands of “black shirts” occupied public buildings and institutions, taking control of communications in northern Italy. The government wanted to declare a state of emergency, but the king refused, leading to the government’s resignation. Victor Emmanuel II, taking full responsibility, called on Mussolini on October 30 to form a new government. The monarchy and the military played decisive roles in transferring power to Fascism. The establishment of the fascist dictatorship resulted from a gradual restriction of freedoms between 1922 and 1924. Initially, a coalition government maintained a semblance of parliamentary life. The final step toward dictatorship occurred in 1924 after the murder of Socialist Deputy Matteotti, who had denounced the fascist squads’ crimes and the National Fascist Party’s electoral fraud. Fascist involvement in the murder led Mussolini to assume full powers and silence all opposition to avoid parliamentary criticism.