Cartesian Philosophy: Mind, Body, and the Existence of God
Descartes’ Method and the Cartesian Project
One of Descartes’ key concerns, marking the beginning of modern philosophy, is the question of method. Three reasons explain this focus:
- Methodological Dispersion in the Renaissance: Methods varied across subjects, following a tradition dating back to Aristotle, who differentiated between methods for arithmetic and geometry.
- Skepticism: Widespread skepticism, represented by figures like Charron, Francisco Sanchez, and Montaigne, challenged the possibility
Spain Under Franco: Economy & Society (1939-1974)
Economy and Society in Franco’s Spain (1939-1974)
Economy
The Spanish economy under Franco’s rule can be divided into three distinct phases:
Autarky (1939-1950): This period was marked by economic depression, severe shortages, and the disruption of modernization efforts initiated by the Republic.
Opening Up (1950-1960): A gradual opening to international markets led to economic recovery, although Spain lagged behind the broader European expansion driven by Keynesian policies.
Growth and Development (
Hume’s Epistemology and Ethics: Empiricism and Moral Emotivism
Theory of Knowledge of Hume
To begin to develop the theory of knowledge consistent with this Scottish invention, it is necessary to know David Hume. Hume was an empiricist and a good empirical basis for all his work was obtained by sensory experience. To start with, Hume formulated a theory with several epistemological principles (always based on empiricism) from which follow a series of logical consequences (here are the most important):
1. Empiricism: Our thought is reduced to very narrow limits,
Read MoreEarly Christian & Byzantine Art and Architecture
1. Early Christian Art’s Contributions
Within the Roman Empire, Christianity emerged, introducing a new spiritual and aesthetic dimension known as Early Christian art. This art served as a bridge between classical and medieval Christian cultures. Until the fourth century, Christians practiced their faith in secrecy due to persecution. In 313 AD, the Edict of Milan granted religious freedom, allowing Christians to express their faith openly and develop a distinct art. This marked two distinct periods:
Read MoreSpain Under Franco: Rise, Rule, and Decline
1.1 The Rise of Franco’s Regime
Military Circumstances
Franco’s reputation as a military strategist, bolstered by successes in Africa, paved the way for his leadership.
International Circumstances
Franco secured support from Germany and Italy, gaining crucial material for the war effort. European powers also aided his cause through neutrality.
Domestic Circumstances
With rivals like Mola and Sanjurjo eliminated early in the war, Franco faced no significant opposition within the Nationalist faction.
Religious
Read MoreUnderstanding Chemical Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures
Matter and Its Classification
What is Matter?
Matter is anything that occupies space. It exists in nature as pure substances and mixtures.
Classification of Matter
Matter can be classified into two main categories:
- Pure Substances: Each pure substance has a fixed composition and a unique set of properties.
- Mixtures: Mixtures are composed of two or more pure substances.
Pure substances can be further categorized into elements and compounds, while mixtures can be homogeneous or heterogeneous.
Pure Substances
Elements
A
Read MoreLex Talionis and Roman Law: Retribution and Justice History
Lex Talionis: An Eye for an Eye
The term lex talionis (Latin) refers to a principle of retributive justice where the offender suffers damage equal to that caused to the victim. The most famous expression is “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth,” from Exodus. Many systems have been inspired by this law. Although seemingly primitive, its spirit emphasizes proportionality of punishment, avoiding disproportionate private revenge.
The Code of Hammurabi (17th century BC) codified lex talionis, establishing
Read MoreChilean President’s Domestic and International Roles
Head of State
1) The President represents the unity of the State. Despite internal political struggles, the State is represented by a single head.
2) Represents the continuity of the State. Regardless of the political party in power, the State remains constant, symbolized by the President.
3) Represents Chile in the judicial field. The President chairs the State Defense Council, representing the Treasury’s interests.
4) Represents Chile internationally. The President engages with other states, exercising
Read MoreAmerican & French Revolutions: Origins to Republics
The American Revolution
The thirteen American colonies on North America’s east coast in the 18th century staged the first rebellion against a colonial power, setting a precedent for governments founded on equality and freedom. The colonists, familiar with Britain’s political process and inspired by Enlightenment ideals, defended their rights and interests against the mother country. They opposed British taxes, trade monopolies, and the lack of parliamentary representation, declaring their intent
Read MoreVergara Agreement & Cortes of Cadiz: 19th Century Spain
Vergara Agreement – August 31, 1839
The Vergara Agreement ended the First Carlist War (1833-1839). It was signed by D. Baldomero Espartero, leader of the Liberal army, and D. Rafael Maroto, principal Carlist leader. This agreement recognized the military ranks of the Carlist army. The document’s creation stems from the succession crisis after King Ferdinand VII’s death. Ferdinand VII abolished the Salic Law via the Pragmatic Sanction, allowing his daughter Isabel to inherit the throne. This led to
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