American & French Revolutions: Origins to Republics
The American Revolution
The thirteen American colonies on North America’s east coast in the 18th century staged the first rebellion against a colonial power, setting a precedent for governments founded on equality and freedom. The colonists, familiar with Britain’s political process and inspired by Enlightenment ideals, defended their rights and interests against the mother country. They opposed British taxes, trade monopolies, and the lack of parliamentary representation, declaring their intent to disobey laws passed without their consent. On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence of the United States of America, drafted by Thomas Jefferson, was adopted.
The United States Constitution
The war for American independence was long, aided by European volunteers. Great Britain recognized American independence in 1783 after the defeat at Yorktown. George Washington became the first U.S. President. In 1787, the new American state drafted its first constitution, ensuring the separation and balance of powers. It established a republican government with a strong president and a federal structure. The Constitution was completed with a Bill of Rights, guaranteeing freedoms of religion, press, assembly, and the right to trial by jury.
Causes of the French Revolution
In 1789, France faced a deep social crisis. Poor harvests led to rising food prices and popular discontent. The bourgeoisie resented their political marginalization. The monarchy was in financial crisis due to high spending and the cost of aiding American independence. A proposed tax reform to include the aristocracy was feared by the absolute monarch, who did not want to alienate his main social support.
Beginning of the French Revolution
The French Revolution began with an aristocratic revolt. The privileged refused to pay taxes and demanded that Louis XVI convene the Estates-General. The Estates-General opened at Versailles in May 1789, comprising representatives of the nobility, clergy, and the Third Estate. Each estate had equal representation, deliberated separately, and held one vote. The Third Estate demanded double representation, joint deliberation, and voting by head. The monarch and nobility only conceded to double representation. On June 20, the Third Estate deputies met in Paris and pledged to draft a constitution reflecting the will of the majority.
End of the Old Regime
The people of Paris supported the Third Estate. Fearing the arrest of deputies by royal troops, they stormed the Bastille on July 14, took up arms, and prepared to defend the revolution. The revolution spread to the countryside as an anti-seigneurial revolt. The National Constituent Assembly abolished feudal privileges on August 4 and enacted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
French Revolution Stages
Following the National Constituent Assembly, France transitioned to a liberal system with distinct stages:
- Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1792): Supported by the conservative bourgeoisie aiming to compromise with the king and privileged classes to abolish the old regime and establish liberalism.
- Democratic Republic (1792-1794): Driven by the radical bourgeoisie and popular sectors seeking a more democratic and egalitarian society.
- Bourgeois Republic (1794-1799): Marked the return of the conservative bourgeoisie, consolidating the dominance of property owners.
The Constitutional Monarchy
Reform Process: In 1789, the king and nobility accepted the new situation. The National Assembly began reforms to establish a constitutional monarchy. In 1791, a constitution embodying political liberalism was promulgated. It introduced indirect suffrage, dividing citizens into active (those with property and voting rights) and passive (those without). The Legislative Assembly enacted laws ensuring equality, prohibiting torture, abolishing feudal taxes, and dissolving guilds. Church property was nationalized and sold, with the state maintaining worship and clergy salaries, separating church and state.
Political Options: The 1789-1791 reforms satisfied the bourgeoisie by granting them political rights and economic freedom. However, the nobility sought to regain privileges, the clergy opposed confiscations, and the monarchy plotted against the assembly. Popular sectors were dissatisfied with restricted suffrage and rising living costs. Revolutionaries included Girondins, Jacobins, and Cordeliers, supported by the sans-culottes, who demanded deeper reforms and a republic.
Failure of Constitutional Monarchy
The royal family’s opposition was evident in their flight from Paris to join the Austrian army, planning to invade France and restore absolutism. The discredited monarch was returned to Paris, revealing his rejection of the revolution. In April 1792, the legislature declared war on Austria. The Austrians invaded France and reached Paris. This led to a revolt by the sans-culottes, who stormed the royal palace on August 10, 1792, imprisoned the king, and proclaimed a republic.