The Spanish Monarchy Crisis and the Uprising Against the French (1808-1812)
The Crisis of the Monarchy of Charles IV
In the early nineteenth century, the monarchy of Charles IV was deeply unpopular. The reason was a crisis of governance, with the king, his wife, and the appointed prime minister, Manuel Godoy, as the main figures. This situation generated strong opposition, which resulted in a push for a change in the style of government, either towards a conservative or a liberal approach. Godoy ordered the confiscation of Church property to combat the financial crisis, as he was the acting prime minister. The royal deficit was aggravated by war and a poor tax system. Another problem was the subordination of Spanish foreign policy to the Napoleonic Empire. One of the worst consequences of this submission was the defeat at Trafalgar. The Treaty of Fontainebleau allowed French troops to enter the peninsula to conquer Portugal and divide it between France and Spain. This erratic and confusing policy fueled the growing opposition party known as the “antigodoyistas.” This group, also called “Fernandinos,” was composed of nobles and clergy favorable to Prince Ferdinand, son of Charles IV. The Fernandino party prepared a conspiracy against the king, in which his son was involved. The so-called “El Escorial Conspiracy” revealed the misery of the Spanish monarchy, as the prince himself apologized for having conspired against his father. The second act of this crisis occurred when the Mutiny of Aranjuez forced Godoy to flee and resign, and Charles IV abdicated in favor of his son Ferdinand. Although the Mutiny of Aranjuez had the appearance of a popular protest, a part of the nobility from the Fernandino party was involved in its outbreak. The fall of Godoy and Charles IV aggravated the crisis of the monarchy. Napoleon’s troops, already in Spain thanks to the Treaty of Fontainebleau, were frowned upon by the Spanish people. Napoleon intervened in the affairs of the Spanish royal family and summoned them to the French city of Bayonne. Obeying this call, Ferdinand VII, his father, and Godoy arrived there between April 20 and 30, 1808. Other members of the royal family were to leave Madrid on May 2.
The Uprising Against the French
On May 2, 1808, before the departure of the last representatives of the royal family, the people of Madrid rose up against the French troops. The French army, under General Murat, suppressed the uprising with a toll of hundreds of deaths. Meanwhile, in Bayonne, Napoleon had forced Charles IV and Ferdinand VII to renounce the throne and hand it over to his own brother, Joseph Bonaparte, who became Joseph I of Spain. The abdications of Bayonne began to reveal the true intentions of the emperor for Spain. The insurrection spread to many cities and towns of the monarchy. In rebellious localities, proclamations were made against the invaders, and juntas were formed to organize the government and defense. Although these movements had a popular origin, a significant portion of the Old Regime’s officials also joined the juntas or led and organized the defense against the invading army. These boards were born mainly in Seville, Valencia, and Zaragoza. The popular and spontaneous uprising surprised the French army, which could not occupy cities whose sieges became examples of heroism and resistance to the invader.
The Statute of Bayonne and the French Government
The French tried to establish by force in Spain a political system based on the principles of political liberalism, albeit with a strong authoritarian character and respecting certain aspects of the country’s specific traditions. This system was reflected in the Statute of Bayonne. Although this text is referred to as the “Constitution of Bayonne” or “Statute of Bayonne,” in reality, it was a charter granted because its establishment did not respond to a popular decision but rather to a decision imposed by power. The text, much in line with Spanish tradition, began by invoking God and pointing out that Spain was a Catholic country. All powers were concentrated in the king, although there were three advisory bodies: the Senate, the Council of State, and the Cortes. It included a declaration of rights and a series of liberal reforms that represented a great improvement over the Old Regime. King Joseph I arrived in Madrid with the task of implementing this project. In fact, his subordination to Napoleon was absolute, to the extent that the Statute of Bayonne specified that if he died without heirs, the throne would revert to the emperor. He tried to govern with the support of enlightened Spaniards and implement a plan to modernize the country. However, he soon realized that all his actions were subject to the needs of Napoleon and that he completely lacked autonomy in government.
The Constitution of 1812
In 1810, a commission was created to prepare a draft constitution. This process was preceded by an intense debate on the model of the constitution and the monarchy. After a year and a half of discussion, the new constitution was promulgated on March 19, 1812. It was popularly known as La Pepa because that day was the feast of Saint Joseph. The members wanted to reconcile the past traditions of the Hispanic kingdoms with the new revolutionary spirit. The principles of the Constitution of 1812 were as follows:
- Affirmation of national sovereignty: power resided in the nation.
- Recognition of individual rights and freedoms and equality before the law.
- Division of powers: legislative power belonged to the Parliament, the executive was in the hands of the king and the government he appointed, and the judiciary was independent.
- The Catholic religion was the only one of the nation.
- Election of representatives in the Cortes by universal male suffrage. However, to be a candidate for deputy, one needed to have their own income.
- Creation of the National Militia, an armed civilian body to defend the constitutional system.
- Moderate monarchy, where the king enacted laws and had the right to a temporary veto.
- Economic freedom with the suppression of guilds, abolition of feudalism, freedom of land enclosure, freedom of industry, and contracting.
The constitution could hardly be applied, due to the difficult context of war, and the absolutist restoration of 1814 abolished it. However, its spirit and its program were a reference for the entire contemporary history of Spain. It also became a myth for universal liberalism and a model for liberal revolutions.