The Spanish Bourbon Dynasty: Reforms and Centralization in the 18th Century
The 18th century, the century of “lights,” began with a new dynasty, the Bourbons, which brought changes in administration, centralism, Enlightened Despotism, enlightened reforms, and a new orientation in foreign policy that was pro-French. The kings of this century were: Felipe V (1700-1746), Fernando VI (1746-1759), Carlos III (1759-1788), and Charles IV (1788-1808).
The War of Succession and the System of Utrecht
Charles II, who died childless, appointed Philip of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV of France, as his successor. He was crowned with the title of Philip V. Thus, the Habsburg dynasty came to an end on the Spanish throne, and the dynasty of the Bourbons began. However, very soon a group formed inside and outside of Spain that could not accept the new king and supported the other pretender, Archduke Charles of Habsburg. Civil and European war broke out.
The conflict had a double perspective: the rise to the Spanish throne of Philip V represented French hegemony and the dreaded union of France and Spain under one monarch. This danger led England, Savoy, and Holland to support the Austrian candidate (The Hague Alliance), which, of course, was defended by the Habsburgs in Vienna. The various European powers were positioned before the Spanish succession conflict.
Felipe V represented the French centralized model, supported by the Crown of Castile, while Charles of Habsburg personified the provincial model, supported by the Crown of Aragon and, especially, in Catalonia.
The war ended with the victory of Felipe V. Along with military victories at Almansa, Brihuega, and Villaviciosa, an international event was key to understanding the outcome of the conflict: Charles of Habsburg inherited the German Empire in 1711 and abandoned his aspiration to rule Spain. The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht and Rastadt (1713):
- a) Philip V was recognized as King of Spain but renounced the rights of the French crown.
- b) Austria received the Netherlands, Naples, and Sardinia. The Duke of Savoy was given Sicily.
- c) England received Gibraltar and Minorca and the right to trade with the Spanish Indies (ship permission) and the right to trade in slaves (black seat).
The Dynastic Change: The Early Bourbons
Philip V (1700-1746) was the first king of the new dynasty of the Bourbons. Despite his power, he was weak in character and was influenced by members of the court, such as Cardinal Alberoni, Baron de Ripperda, Jose Patino, and, above all, his wife, Elizabeth Farnese. In 1723 he abdicated in favor of his son, Louis I, who died a year later, with Felipe resuming responsibility.
During his reign, he undertook a broad program of reforms to curb the decline of the Spanish monarchy and to modernize the kingdom. The first half was to replace the Habsburg polisinodial system with a system organized by ministries, the history of the current ministries, such as State, Treasury, War, Navy and the Indies, and Grace and Justice. The former Council of Castile became a superior court. He also introduced the Salic Law, which gave preference to men in the line of succession. Finally, he promoted the creation of the Royal Spanish Academy of Language and ordered the construction of the Palacio Real de la Granja de San Ildefonso (Segovia), in imitation of Versailles.
The reign of Fernando VI (1746-1759) was a period of peace that saw the continuity of reform policies, whose protagonists were the Marquis of Ensenada, a Francophile, and José de Carvajal, an Anglophile. The Marquis of Ensenada promoted projects to improve marine trade, finance, etc. His most ambitious project was the completion of the Cadastre of Ensenada, a comprehensive study of the wealth of the territories of the Kingdom of Castile, in order to replace the numerous taxes with a single contribution that would improve the tax system. This reform was aborted by the privileged groups in society for fear of losing their benefits.
Ferdinand VI founded the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando (Calle Alcalá), and his wife, the Portuguese Barbara of Portugal, built the convent of the Salesian Royals (now the Supreme Court of Justice).
Reforms in State Organization: The Centralist Monarchy
The Bourbon dynasty in Spain introduced a new form of state organization, following the French model. This reform was based on centralization, i.e., the main measures of the government were adopted by the monarch and the secretaries of state, and uniformity, which meant that these measures should be applied in all territories and in the same way. Also, naval rearmament was encouraged with the aim of returning Spain to the group of major European powers.
The alignment of the territories of the Crown of Aragon to the cause of Archduke Charles served as a pretext for Philip V to suppress its institutions and privileges through the promulgation of the Decree of Nueva Planta (Aragon and Valencia in 1707, Mallorca in 1715, and Catalonia in 1716). From then on, its political and administrative organization would be based on the model of Castile and imposing the use of Castilian as the administrative and legal language. These decrees rescinded (canceled) institutions of the Crown of Aragon, such as the viceroys, the Courts, the Generalitat, and the office of chief justice. Only the Basque provinces (Basque) and Navarre retained their institutions, their charter, their internal customs, and military exemptions. It was the reward of Felipe V for being faithful to the Bourbon cause.
The territorial administration and local government were profoundly transformed, resulting in new institutions and offices representing the royal authority in the different territories:
- The captain-general replaced the viceroys. They were in the most delicate areas, borders, with strategic functions and a triple mission: representing the king, the political government, and monitoring public order and national defense.
- The intendant, controlled by the mayor, served to shape the future provincial government. They had tax powers, judicial, economic, and military.
- The townships were extended in the area of Aragon but lost autonomy and competence.
The Navy received a strong impulse: it increased the number of fighting ships, shipyards, and arsenals. An academy was created to better prepare midshipmen officers. In this century, the Navy adopted a new battle flag that eventually became the flag of Spain (1785). And in the Army, to increase the number of recruits, the “fifth system” was introduced (a drawing by which one in five men fit was called up), and forced conscription of vagrants, and to maintain Walloon Guards (recruitment of foreign troops).
The Practice of Enlightened Despotism: Carlos III
As in other European kingdoms and influenced by the Enlightenment, the Bourbons applied a style of government: Enlightened Despotism. Moreover absolutism but with some concern for the welfare of the people (“all for the people, but without the people”). With low tolerance of monarchs, it was conducted by reformist ministers (not revolutionary, because it did not intend to alter the foundations of the old regime) such as the Marquis de la Ensenada with Fernando VI, or Esquilache, Count of Floridablanca, Campomanes or Count with Carlos Aranda III, who was the very model of an enlightened monarch in Spain.
The reforms had begun with Fernando VI and the Marquis of Ensenada (promotion of the Navy, an attempt to introduce a flat tax and the land-direct-gifts-policy primacy of state over the Church), but Charles III spurred them more strongly. The first was issued by the Italian Grimaldi and Esquilache secretaries (they had come from Naples to Charles):
- Some very unpopular, as the order to cut layers and wide-brimmed hats of both locals and causing the “riot Esquilache” and his fall from power.
- The Count of Aranda promulgated the 1767 Pragmatic Sanction, expelling the Jesuits from Spain and the Indies (its members had a special vow of obedience to the Pope, which made them difficult to submit to royal authority). The Jesuits controlled much of the education and universities, forming the elite who then occupied senior positions in the Administration.
- An ambitious policy of beautification of the city of Madrid.
- Economic, military, and administrative reforms spread to America. (Item 9.6.)
The most notable economic reforms were the liberalization of trade with America (1778), the creation of the “Real Factory” weapons and luxury products (lamps, carpets), the founding of the National Bank of San Carlos by Francisco Cabarrus, and some public works, such as the Canal de Castilla. Measures were taken to reform the agricultural sector, seeking to increase the cultivated area, such as the limitation of privileges of the Council of the Mesta, colonization, and the establishment of new populations of Sierra Morena (La Carolina, Jaén) or the leasing of communal land to the municipalities for day laborers, secretaries projects executed by Campomanes and Olavide.