South American Regionalism and the United Nations Structure
Specific Features of South American Regionalism
South America is highly “over-organised,” with countries belonging to multiple overlapping groups (e.g., MERCOSUR, CAN, UNASUR, CELAC, ALBA, ALADI). This creates an “alphabet soup” of acronyms with no clear hierarchy. Unlike the EU, there is no single dominant organisation—only competing projects shaped by shifting political ideologies.
Three Political Waves of South American Regionalism
- 1990s — Market Wave: Liberal reforms boosted trade blocs
Key Economic and Political Movements in Modern History
Historical Materialism
Historical materialism is Marx’s theory that history changes because of economic conditions and the way production is organised. According to this idea, the type of economy and technology determines social classes, politics, and society.
Anarchism
Anarchism was first developed in the 19th century in the centre of Europe by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, although its best-known advocate was Mikhail Bakunin. It is a political ideology that seeks to abolish the state and all forms of authority.
Read MoreComparative Literature: Historical Development and Key Schools
Foundations of Comparative Literature (CL)
Imitatio and Early Influences
Imitatio (19th discipline, practice old as literature): Writers openly imitated and reworked earlier models. Greek culture provided recurring patterns (exile, metamorphosis…). Thus, imitatio shows that comparison is embedded in literature’s very origins.
- George Smith: Deciphered ancient cuneiform, Akkadian (story of a great flood), which parallels the Book of Genesis in the Bible, sparking debates about Creationism and biblical
Understanding Foreign Policy: Meaning, Objectives, and Factors
Understanding Foreign Policy
Foreign policy, also known as external policy, is the set of strategies and actions a state employs in its interactions with other states, unions, and international entities. It encompasses a wide range of objectives, including defense and security, economic benefits, and humanitarian assistance. The formulation of foreign policy is influenced by various factors such as domestic considerations, the behavior of other states, and geopolitical strategies. Historically, the
Read MoreBritish Political History: From Empire to Welfare State
The Four Nations and Irish Partition
- Who: England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland (until 1922); Irish nationalists; Ulster unionists; and the British Parliament.
- What: The United Kingdom was not a single nation but a union of four historically distinct political and cultural communities.
- When: The Union was completed in 1801 and became politically explosive between the 1880s and 1921.
- Where: The British Isles, especially Ireland and Ulster.
- How: Irish demands for Home Rule exposed tensions within the union.
International Relations, Governance, and Social Dynamics
The United Nations and Regional Conflicts
Q1. Why has the United Nations struggled to resolve the conflicts in Kashmir?
The United Nations has struggled to resolve the Kashmir conflict mainly due to three reasons:
- Opposition from India: India rejects international mediation and considers Kashmir an internal matter, blocking UN intervention.
- Geopolitical Rivalry: The conflict involves two nuclear-armed countries, India and Pakistan, with deep-rooted territorial disputes and strategic interests.
- Lack of