Spain’s Transition to Democracy and European Integration
Franco’s dictatorship kept Spain out of major Western international organizations. After democracy’s establishment, Spain integrated into the Council of Europe, NATO, and the European Economic Community (EEC). The 1982 general election, its results, and consequences marked the end of the transition to democracy that began in 1975. The PSOE won a landslide victory, securing the first absolute majority for a political party in democratic Spain. The first socialist government oversaw Spain’s integration
Read MoreKey Political Thinkers: From Rousseau to Machiavelli
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
Born in Geneva, Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a prominent Enlightenment philosopher and writer. His influential and often contradictory work explored the impact of society on human nature, arguing that societal corruption hinders individual happiness. Rousseau’s skepticism towards religious institutions and his emphasis on feeling and emotion positioned him as a precursor to Romanticism.
Rousseau’s Influence on the State
Living during a period of revolutionary upheaval
Read MoreMarxist Historical Materialism and the Evolution of Society
Historical Materialism: A Marxist Analysis of History
The Material Basis of Society
Historical materialism, the Marxist science of history, emphasizes the role of human beings as the protagonists of history. It rests on two fundamental ideas:
- Humans interact with nature and each other through material relations. They extract resources from nature and produce goods to satisfy their material needs (food, shelter, etc.). Marx termed this the social production of life.
- These material relations shape ideology,
Labor Movement: History, Ideologies, and Social Impact
The Birth of the Labor Movement
The industrial mode of production caused the disappearance of guilds and the impoverishment and destitution of artisans. The emergence of economic liberalism resulted in very harsh living conditions for workers. These conditions were characterized by:
- Working very long hours (up to 14 hours).
- Lack of safety and health at work, leading to common accidents and diseases.
- Exploitation of women and children.
- Lower, often subsistence, wages.
- Free dismissal without compensation
Rationalism and Pioneers in Modern Architecture
Rationalism: The most important architectural movement of the 20th century, after World War I, producing a vanguard architectural language completely detached from the past and responding to the needs and aspirations of modern society. It is based on the following premises:
- Functionalism: Ways to serve the function, a practical concept of architecture. “Architecture as an instrument of social progress” in the service of collective needs.
- Inspired by Neo-Dutch, Russian Constructivism, and Cubism.
Defining
Read MoreTechnological Transformations: From Industrial Revolution to Modern Age
Technology in the Modern Age
At the end of the Middle Ages, cities were the main feature of Western life. In 1600, London and Amsterdam had populations over 100,000, and Paris twice that amount. Germans, English, Spanish, and French began to build global empires. In the early eighteenth century, capital resources and banking systems were well-established in Britain to start investing in mass production techniques, satisfying middle-class aspirations. The Industrial Revolution began in England due
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