Modern Sociological Challenges and Global Governance
1. Risk Society — Ulrich Beck (SDG 13)
We produce risks as a side effect of progress. Modernization no longer guarantees safety; it creates new systemic dangers. Global risks cannot be solved by national governments alone.
2. Precarity — Judith Butler / Guy Standing (SDG 8)
Precarity is a new form of social regulation under neoliberalism. It prevents individuals from planning a future or exercising full citizenship. The “precariat” is a growing class without stability, rights, or representation.
Read MoreUnderstanding Systems of Government and Political Dynamics
Systems of Government
Governments are classified into three types based on who rules: autocracy, oligarchy, and democracy.
- Autocracy: Rule by one person, such as a monarch or dictator.
- Oligarchy: Rule by a small group that gains power through wealth, military, or social position.
- Democracy: Rule by the people, which can be direct or representative.
This ancient classification no longer fully describes modern political life, as the same institutions can function very differently in different countries.
Read MoreSociolinguistics Glossary: Key Concepts and Definitions
A–C
- Assimilation: Migrants are expected to adopt the dominant culture and language completely.
- Authenticity: The idea that a language has value because it is strongly connected to a specific place, culture, or community.
- Centralization: The state controls language rules, education, and communication.
- Citizenship Language Requirement: A rule that migrants must learn the official language to become citizens.
- Complementary Signs: Signs where different languages give different pieces of information that
South American Regionalism and the United Nations Structure
Specific Features of South American Regionalism
South America is highly “over-organised,” with countries belonging to multiple overlapping groups (e.g., MERCOSUR, CAN, UNASUR, CELAC, ALBA, ALADI). This creates an “alphabet soup” of acronyms with no clear hierarchy. Unlike the EU, there is no single dominant organisation—only competing projects shaped by shifting political ideologies.
Three Political Waves of South American Regionalism
- 1990s — Market Wave: Liberal reforms boosted trade blocs
Key Economic and Political Movements in Modern History
Historical Materialism
Historical materialism is Marx’s theory that history changes because of economic conditions and the way production is organised. According to this idea, the type of economy and technology determines social classes, politics, and society.
Anarchism
Anarchism was first developed in the 19th century in the centre of Europe by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, although its best-known advocate was Mikhail Bakunin. It is a political ideology that seeks to abolish the state and all forms of authority.
Read MoreComparative Literature: Historical Development and Key Schools
Foundations of Comparative Literature (CL)
Imitatio and Early Influences
Imitatio (19th discipline, practice old as literature): Writers openly imitated and reworked earlier models. Greek culture provided recurring patterns (exile, metamorphosis…). Thus, imitatio shows that comparison is embedded in literature’s very origins.
- George Smith: Deciphered ancient cuneiform, Akkadian (story of a great flood), which parallels the Book of Genesis in the Bible, sparking debates about Creationism and biblical