History and Evolution of Psychology and Pathology
1. Psychological Psychology: From Philosophy to Science
Psychology as a science is relatively young, but the connection between mental events and health has always intrigued thinkers. Philosophers like Aristotle and medieval scholastics believed in a higher, immaterial being responsible for understanding and will, and an inferior, material being governing nerve functions and emotions. In the 17th century, Descartes proposed Cartesian dualism, separating mind and matter, which initially hindered psychology’
Read MoreUnderstanding Deviance, Crime, and Social Change: A Sociological Perspective
Deviance and Crime
Definitions
Deviance
Deviance is a recognized violation of cultural norms; it’s straying from the accepted standards of a society.
Crime
Crime is a specific type of deviance that violates a society’s formally enacted criminal law, established by a local, state, or federal government.
Pluralistic Societies
Pluralistic societies are diverse communities where individuals hold a variety of beliefs and tolerate each other’s perspectives, even when they disagree.
Capital Offenses
Capital offenses
Read MoreUnderstanding Political Correctness and Social Issues
Political Correctness: means using words or behavior that will not offend any group of people. Most people think it is important for everyone to be treated equally, fairly, and with dignity.
Taboo Language: refers to words and phrases that are generally considered inappropriate in certain contexts. Swearing: rude or offensive language that someone uses, especially when they are angry. Patriarchy: a social system in which males hold primary power and predominate in roles of political leadership, moral
Read MoreAttitudes, Emotions, Memory, and Learning: A Comprehensive Overview
Attitudes & Emotions
Introduction
The concept of attitude, used by social psychologists, reflects a person’s overall view about something. It is socially learned and can be changed (e.g., a person’s attitude towards politics or religion).
Components of Attitude
Attitudes have three main components:
- Cognitive: Information about something
- Affective: Positive and negative emotions
- Behavioral: Actual behavior
Attitude Formation
Attitudes can be formed through various ways:
- Direct experience: e.g., playing
Social Influence and Media Effects: Understanding Group Dynamics, Communication, and Knowledge Gaps
Social Influence and Group Dynamics
Social norms are shared rules or standards that guide behavior within a group or society. These norms can be categorized as:
- Descriptive norms: Specify what is typically done in a setting.
- Injunctive norms: Specify what is typically approved of in society.
Kurt Lewin’s research on group dynamics highlighted the power of group influence. His food habit study during World War II demonstrated that group discussions were more effective than lectures in changing behavior.
Read MoreEthnography and Symbolic Interactionism: A Comprehensive Overview
Evolution of Ethnography
Auguste Comte and the Comparative Method
Auguste Comte’s identification of three stages of development common to all cultures paved the way for early ethnographers. This framework, however, limited researchers to fitting their findings into pre-established phases.
Ethnography in the 20th Century
The post-World War II decolonization process triggered a shift in ethnographic perspectives. The previous focus on “primitive” and “underdeveloped” cultures, while suggesting common
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