Molecular Geometry, Gas Laws, and Intermolecular Forces
Molecular Geometry and Hybridization
To determine electron domain geometry, molecular geometry, hybridization, polarity, and bond angles, you must count electron domains (bonding pairs and lone pairs) around the central atom of a Lewis structure.
- Electron Domain Geometry: The arrangement of all electron domains. For example, four domains result in a tetrahedral geometry.
- Molecular Geometry: The arrangement of only the atoms. For example, four domains with one lone pair result in a trigonal pyramidal
Planck’s Law: Blackbody Radiation and Quantum Physics
Planck’s Radiation Law: Detailed Analysis
Introduction:
Planck’s radiation law is a fundamental principle in quantum physics that explains the spectral distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted by a blackbody in thermal equilibrium. This law resolved the limitations of classical physics, especially the “ultraviolet catastrophe” predicted by the Rayleigh-Jeans law at short wavelengths.
Background: Resolving Spectral Failures
Before Planck, scientists used Wien’s law and Rayleigh-Jeans law to
Read MorePunjabi Translation Practice: Essential Words and Sentences
ਅਨੁਵਾਦ ਅਭਿਆਸ: ਹਿੰਦੀ/ਅੰਗਰੇਜ਼ੀ ਤੋਂ ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
ਤੁਹਾਡੇ ਲਈ ਹਿੰਦੀ/ਅੰਗਰੇਜ਼ੀ ਤੋਂ ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਵਿੱਚ ਸ਼ਬਦਾਂ ਅਤੇ ਵਾਕਾਂ ਦੇ ਅਨੁਵਾਦ ਦਾ ਅਭਿਆਸ ਹੇਠਾਂ ਦਿੱਤਾ ਗਿਆ ਹੈ।
ਭਾਗ 1: ਸ਼ਬਦਾਂ ਦਾ ਅਨੁਵਾਦ (Word Translation)
ਹੇਠਾਂ ਦਿੱਤੇ ਸ਼ਬਦਾਂ ਦਾ ਸਹੀ
Read MoreQuantum Mechanics Fundamentals and Key Equations
COMPTON EFFECT
The Compton effect is the scattering of a high-frequency photon (like an X-ray or gamma-ray) after it collides with a charged particle, typically an electron. During this collision, the photon transfers some of its energy and momentum to the electron. As a result, the scattered photon has less energy and therefore a longer wavelength (λ’) than the incident photon (λ).
The change in wavelength, or Compton shift, is given by: Δλ = λ’ – λ = (h / m_e c) * (1 – cosθ)
where: h = Planck’
Read MoreAtmospheric Dynamics: Forces and Flow Balances
(1) Fundamental Forces in Rotating Frames
Centrifugal Force
Outward force in a rotating reference frame.
Coriolis Force
Deflection due to Earth’s rotation.
Centripetal Force
Inward force keeping circular motion.
Geostrophic Flow
Balance between Coriolis force and pressure gradient force (PGF).
Inertial Flow
Only Coriolis force acts.
Cyclostrophic Flow
Pressure balances centrifugal force; no Coriolis effect.
Gradient Flow
Curved flow involving all forces.
(2) Centrifugal Effects and Gravity
- Moment Arm: Longer
Fundamental Concepts in Physical Science and Geology
Matter and Atomic Structure
- Matter and Space
- Material occupies space. Inertia is often cited as the cause of gravity or motion.
- Material Body
- The material body is a form of matter with defined limits, representing its own material system.
- Atoms
- Atoms are formed by a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, and an outer shell where electrons continuously spin around the core.
- Ions
- Ions are atoms that acquire a net electric charge.
- A Positive Ion (Cation) is an atom that loses electrons, acquiring a net positive