Quantum Mechanics Fundamentals: 16 Key Concepts Explained
Core Principles of Quantum Mechanics
The No-Cloning Theorem
The no-cloning theorem states that it is impossible to create an exact copy of an arbitrary unknown quantum state. This is because quantum mechanics is linear and unitary; any operation that clones one state would necessarily distort another. Only orthogonal states (like |0⟩ and |1⟩) can be perfectly distinguished and copied.
The Copenhagen Interpretation
According to the Copenhagen interpretation, the wave function represents the probability
Read MoreEssential Physics Laws, Units, and Core Concepts
Fundamental Laws and Conservation Principles
- Newton’s First Law: An object stays in uniform motion unless a net force acts (if net force = 0, motion remains unchanged).
- Newton’s Second Law: Acceleration is proportional to net force and inversely proportional to mass.
- Newton’s Third Law: Forces come in equal and opposite pairs (action and reaction).
- Conservation of Energy: Total mechanical energy remains constant if no non-conservative forces act.
- Conservation of Momentum: Total momentum stays constant
Core Principles of Physics and Electromagnetism
Inertial and Non-Inertial Reference Frames
Inertial and non-inertial frames of reference are two types of coordinate systems used to describe the motion of objects. An inertial frame is one where Newton’s laws of motion hold true, meaning an object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and direction unless acted upon by a force. In contrast, a non-inertial frame experiences acceleration, and Newton’s laws need to be modified with fictitious forces to account
Read MorePhysics Formulas: Gyration, Poisson Ratio, Relativity & Elasticity
Key Physics Concepts and Equations
(a) Radius of Gyration (k)
The radius of gyration of a body about a given axis is the radial distance from the axis of rotation to a point where the entire mass of the body could be concentrated without changing its moment of inertia.
Mathematically, it is defined by the relation:
I = M k^2
Where:
- I is the moment of inertia.
- M is the total mass of the body.
- k is the radius of gyration (SI unit: meters).
(b) Poisson’s Ratio: Can It Be Negative?
Yes, the Poisson’s ratio (ν)
Read MoreFundamental Energy Systems, Radiation, and Climate Physics
1. Energy and Systems (Weeks 3–4)
- Energy is a real, quantifiable physical quantity.
- Exists in many forms: kinetic, potential, thermal, electromagnetic, nuclear, chemical, sound.
- Energy can change form, but total energy is conserved.
- Open system: exchanges both energy and mass.
- Closed system: exchanges energy only.
- Isolated system: exchanges neither energy nor mass.
- Scale and duration matter: a system may look isolated on short timescales but open on long ones.
2. Sound Energy and Intensity
- Sound energy
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਸ਼ਬਦ ਜੋੜ ਅਤੇ ਵਿਆਕਰਨ ਦੇ ਮਹੱਤਵਪੂਰਨ ਨਿਯਮ
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਸ਼ਬਦ ਜੋੜਾਂ ਦੇ ਮੁੱਖ ਨਿਯਮ
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਭਾਸ਼ਾ ਵਿੱਚ ਸ਼ਬਦਾਂ ਨੂੰ ਸਹੀ ਢੰਗ ਨਾਲ ਲਿਖਣ ਲਈ ਕੁਝ ਮਹੱਤਵਪੂਰਨ ਨਿਯਮ ਹਨ, ਜਿਨ੍ਹਾਂ ਨੂੰ ਅਪਣਾ ਕੇ ਅਸੀਂ ਲਿਖਤ ਵਿੱਚ ਇਕਸਾਰਤਾ ਲਿਆ ਸਕਦੇ ਹਾਂ। ਮੁੱਖ ਤੌਰ ‘ਤੇ ਇਹ ਨਿਯਮ ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਯੂਨੀਵਰਸਿਟੀ,
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