Atmospheric Dynamics: Forces and Flow Balances
(1) Fundamental Forces in Rotating Frames
Centrifugal Force
Outward force in a rotating reference frame.
Coriolis Force
Deflection due to Earth’s rotation.
Centripetal Force
Inward force keeping circular motion.
Geostrophic Flow
Balance between Coriolis force and pressure gradient force (PGF).
Inertial Flow
Only Coriolis force acts.
Cyclostrophic Flow
Pressure balances centrifugal force; no Coriolis effect.
Gradient Flow
Curved flow involving all forces.
(2) Centrifugal Effects and Gravity
- Moment Arm: Longer
Fundamental Concepts in Physical Science and Geology
Matter and Atomic Structure
- Matter and Space
- Material occupies space. Inertia is often cited as the cause of gravity or motion.
- Material Body
- The material body is a form of matter with defined limits, representing its own material system.
- Atoms
- Atoms are formed by a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, and an outer shell where electrons continuously spin around the core.
- Ions
- Ions are atoms that acquire a net electric charge.
- A Positive Ion (Cation) is an atom that loses electrons, acquiring a net positive
Understanding Transformations in Game Programming
In game programming, transformation refers to the process of changing an object’s position, rotation, or scale within a game world. These changes are typically represented using mathematics, especially vectors and matrices.
Types of Transformations
There are three main types of transformations:
- Translation
Moves an object from one place to another.
Example: Moving a player forward by 5 units.
In 2D/3D games, this is often done by adding a vector to the object’s current position. - Rotation
Rotates an object
Kinematics Fundamentals and Essential Lab Equipment
Core Concepts in Kinematics
Kinematics
Kinematics is the branch of physics that studies the velocity and acceleration of a moving object, without considering the forces that cause the motion.
Observer Reference System
The Observer Reference System is used for measuring the position, velocity, and acceleration of a moving object. These are typically Cartesian coordinates (e.g., $xy$-plane or $xyz$-space).
Trajectory (Path)
The Trajectory is the line that results from the union of all points through which
Read MoreClassical Free Electron Theory (Drude Model) and Quantum Comparison
Classical Free Electron Theory and Assumptions
The Classical Free Electron Theory (or Drude-Lorentz model) treats a metal as a container of free electrons (an “electron gas”) moving randomly within a fixed lattice of positive ions. When an external electric field is applied, these electrons experience a force and “drift” in the opposite direction, creating a current.
Assumptions:
Classical Mechanics:
The free electrons are treated as classical particles and obey Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics.
Free Electrons:
Read MoreMagnetic Properties of Materials: Paramagnetism and Ferromagnetism
PARAMAGNETISM
The atoms of paramagnetic substances possess permanent magnetic dipoles.
In the absence of external magnetic field, the atomic dipoles are distributed randomly throughout the paramagnetic material as shown in fig. (5.6a). The external field of individual atoms cancel each other’s effect and hence do not exhibit any magnetic properties in the absence of external magnetic field.
Now, when the substance is subjected to an external field B, each of the atomic dipole experiences a torque.
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