Branches of Science: Formal, Empirical, and Their Methods
1. Classification of Science
The sciences are divided into two groups:
- Formal Sciences: These do not refer to facts or experience. This group includes only two sciences: mathematics and logic. For example, the statement x + y = 25 is a mathematical statement that does not give us any information about reality. Its truth depends on deduction, not on correspondence with experience. Variables like x and y are placeholders, not representations of real-world objects. The method used is the deductive method.
Ancient Greek Philosophies and Their Evolution
Sophist Intellectual Movement
The intellectual movement known as the Enlightenment emerged in Athens, Greece, in the 5th century BC. Sophists (sophistes), mostly foreigners (metics), were skilled speakers and masters of eristic. They educated many politicians and members of the Athenian nobility in exchange for fees. They did not form a formal school but shared a sharp critique of traditional institutions and advocated for Panhellenism, the unity of all Greeks under a common language. They held a
Read MoreDescartes’ Method: Rules, Doubt, and ‘I Think, Therefore I Am’
The Method
Rules guaranteeing the acquisition of clear knowledge.
The fundamental rules of the method are:
1. Rule of Evidence: Accept as true only what is presented with evidence (intuition). This leads to methodical doubt and establishes knowledge as a strict science. In “Principles of Philosophy,” Descartes states we never mislead if we only describe judgments based on clear and distinct knowledge. Error arises from judging before having accurate knowledge; the will can go beyond clarity and distinction,
Read MoreSt. Thomas Aquinas: Reconciling Faith and Reason
Life and Work: Reason and Faith
St. Thomas Aquinas argues that truth is singular but can be understood through two distinct paths: reason and faith. Reason draws from sensory data, while faith is based on divine revelation. Both are independent yet complementary. Truths of faith, studied by theology, surpass human reason and must be accepted as divine emanations. Conversely, truths of reason, explored in philosophy, are accessible and demonstrable through the human mind. Some truths, like immortality
Read MoreKant’s Metaphysics: A Priori Knowledge, Synthetic Judgments, and Ethics
1. – The General Problem of Metaphysics
Metaphysics has failed to enter the secure path of science. Unlike other sciences, metaphysics has sought to transcend experience and offer knowledge of entities such as God, the soul, and the world as a whole, from a priori concepts independent of experience.
2. – The Problem of A Priori Knowledge
Since metaphysics seeks to obtain a priori knowledge independent of experience, the answer to the question about its ability to provide answers precedes the question
Read MoreKant’s Philosophy: Unifying Rationalism and Empiricism for Knowledge and Freedom
CONCEPTS
Pure or Theoretical
Concepts empty of empirical axioms, giving rise to knowledge through reasoning. A self-evident proposition needs no proof.
Saber
Knowledge acquired through sensations (perceived) to create concepts and link them, forming judgments. Knowledge is a system of trial.
Tautological
Self-evident; saying the same thing. A tautological trial where the subject and predicate are identical.
Synthesis
Unifying and formalizing materials; implementing methods. Synthesizing successive levels:
Read More