Ortega y Gasset: Life, History, and Philosophy
The 20th Century and Ortega’s Thought
We are in the twentieth century. Ortega y Gasset highlights the arrival of the masses, a century marked by two world wars, the atomic bomb, and unprecedented scientific and technological advancements: radio, television, computers, and virtual reality. This new century began with World War I, the Soviet Revolution, the rise of fascism, the Second Republic in Spain, the Spanish Civil War, World War II, and the Franco dictatorship. Ortega was deeply engaged with
Read MoreThomas Aquinas and Natural Law
Historical Setting: 13th Century Europe
The Awakening of Europe
The 13th century marked a significant turning point in European history, emerging from the Dark Ages into the High Middle Ages. Technological advancements and favorable harvests spurred economic growth, leading to a resurgence of cities, particularly in France, the Netherlands, and Italy. While the economic system remained largely agricultural, the political landscape saw the consolidation of major European monarchies like Castile, Aragon,
Read MoreNietzsche’s Philosophy: Rethinking Values and the Will to Power
Humanity
Using genealogical methods, Nietzsche investigates moral concepts from an etymological and historical perspective. Across cultures, “good” is associated with nobility, pride, and strength, while “evil” is linked to the plebeian, humility, and obedience.
According to Nietzsche, a transformation of values began with the Jews and continued with Christianity. This was a slave revolt fundamentally rooted in resentment.
Nietzsche saw a need for a revaluation of values, centered on the affirmation
Read MoreNietzsche, Schopenhauer, and the Will to Power
Schopenhauer’s Critique of Kant
Kant argued that we can only know phenomena, not the “thing-in-itself” (noumenon). Our minds grasp reality in a way that may not correspond to what exists externally. Schopenhauer, influenced by Eastern thought, believed this “representation” was an illusion hiding the true world. Unlike Kant, he thought we could know the world-in-itself by looking within ourselves. Our bodies are phenomena, but our inner selves, driven by will and desire, connect us to the noumenal
Read MoreParliamentary Systems: Majority vs. Proportional Representation
Tensions Between Pro-Majority and Pro-Proportional System Supporters
Majoritarian Systems
Majoritarian systems award the position(s) to the candidate with the most votes—a “winner-takes-all” approach. In Spain, this system is used for the Senate, albeit with limited and corrected voting.
Critics of the Majority Principle
Critics raise several arguments against majoritarian systems:
- Underrepresentation: These systems can lead to seats being won with minimal representation, resulting in a significant
Aristotle and Marx: Political Philosophies
Aristotle
Aristotle, a pupil of Plato, was a highly influential Greek philosopher of the 4th century BC. He developed important theories about politics.
Policy: Man as a Social Animal
1. Introduction
Individuals achieve happiness and well-being in a community. According to Aristotle, man is a political and social animal. To live outside the polis (city-state) is to be either more or less than human.
- Humans possess logos (reason), distinguishing good from evil, right from wrong, which only makes sense