20th Century Thinkers: Marx, Nietzsche, Freud, and Darwin
Foundational Figures of 20th-Century Thought
Marxism
Developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Marxism draws upon classical philosophy, political economy, and French revolutionary politics. It branches into three key areas:
- Socio-economic analysis
- Political theory
- Philosophical critique
Stemming from Hegelian philosophy, Marxism diverged into two interpretations after Hegel’s death: the Right Hegelians, who sought to preserve existing systems, and the Left Hegelians, who challenged established norms.
Read MoreHuman Consciousness, Freedom, and Responsibility
Consciousness
Originally meaning awareness and soul, consciousness is identified with reason and the afterlife. Hume believed the soul is a complex biopsychosocial and social fabric. Nietzsche criticizes transcendental moral values and proclaims immanent values as the only legitimate ones. Freud posited that our behavior is guided by unconscious motives.
Modes of Consciousness
- Intentional: Consciousness’ contents are acts aimed at something (Brentano).
- Methodical: Consciousness is regulated by a method
Hume’s Treatise on Human Nature: Impressions and Ideas
Text 1: Impressions and Ideas
Defining Mental Perceptions
According to the Treatise of Human Nature, all mental content, including sensory images, passions, thoughts, and reflections, are classified as perceptions. These perceptions are further divided into two categories: impressions and ideas.
Distinguishing Impressions and Ideas
Impressions are perceptions of the passions or emotions felt, or images of external objects. Ideas, on the other hand, are perceptions derived from reflection on our passions
Read MoreMental Reality Representation: Levels and Forms
1.1. Representation Forms and Levels of Mental Reality
We describe the various cognitive processes that enable humans to represent reality, comparing and highlighting their advantages and disadvantages. We will explore how language is the key process that allows a qualitative leap in our representation of the world and the construction of our knowledge.
There are three levels of representation, each operating from the data offered by the previous level. This is called constructivism, and it forms
Read MoreNatural Religion: Deism and Theism
Natural Religion: Deism and Theism
Natural religion encompasses deism and theism, arising in response to both atheism and positive religions. A critique of Christianity led to the pursuit of a religion aligned with reason, avoiding rigid dogma. This involved identifying the core elements of religion, excluding aspects that lead to sectarianism (e.g., dietary restrictions, image worship, confession, specific dogmas). These elements, present in various faiths (Anglican, Lutheran, Calvinist, Catholic,
Read MoreThemes of Love, Life, and Death in Literature
Key Motifs and Their Significance
Love
Post Mortem Love (Love Beyond Death)
The eternal nature of love, a sentiment that persists after physical death.
Bonus Amor (Love Good)
The positive nature of spiritual love.
Ferus Amor (Wild Love)
The negative nature of physical love and sexual passion.
Amor Mixtus (Mixed Love)
The complex nature of physical and spiritual love when experienced together.
Life
Beatus Ille (Happy is He)
In praise of country life; rural versus urban bustle and courtesy.