Descartes’ Philosophy: Reason, Doubt, and Existence
Descartes: The Universe of Rationalism
Descartes sees the universe through the lens of rationalism. The unity of reason and science is paramount. The method Descartes uses is another matter. There is no human wisdom that remains identical, even when applied to various sciences and diverse knowledge. Incremental manifestation of knowledge is the only reason for Descartes.
The Structure of Reason and Method
Descartes identifies two types of knowledge: intuition and deduction.
- Intuition: A light or natural
Descartes’ Philosophy: Thinking Substance and Infinite Being
Res Cogitans: The Thinking Substance
Res cogitans refers to a thinking thing that doubts, understands, affirms, denies, wills, imagines, and feels. Sentimental life encompasses emotional and volitional aspects. All states of mind are considered psychic thoughts. While I may not have a body, I cannot deny that I am thinking. The objects of thought (res cogitans) are ideas.
In analyzing ideas, Descartes distinguishes two aspects:
- They are mental acts. All ideas have the same reality and seem to originate
Human Nature: Foundation of All Sciences
Human Nature: The Foundation of All Sciences
Hume’s Philosophy on Science and Human Nature
David Hume argues for the interdependence of all sciences and what he terms “the science of human nature.” Since all sciences are created by humans, it is humans who should be studied. Everything that humans can know depends on their capacity. Hume’s philosophy seeks to bring humanity towards progress and modernity. This “Science of Man” aimed to move away from the old, overly rational, and superstitious ways
Read MoreEinstein’s Theory of Relativity: A Dynamic and Open System
The Theory of Relativity
Albert Einstein came to the conclusion that light behaves as both a wave and a particle, and its speed is constant. This was the beginning of the **Theory of Relativity**.
According to the theory, there is no absolute motion or fixed reference point. There is no time and space apart, but a space-time continuum. Mass and energy are interchangeable. This theory explains the accelerated motion of bodies, and in particular, gravity as a curvature of space-time.
New Ways of Thinking
In
Read MoreNietzsche’s Philosophy: Apparent World, Value Transmutation, and Innocence of Becoming
Nietzsche’s Concept of the Apparent World
The “apparent world,” in Nietzsche’s philosophy, refers to his division of reality into two realms, a concept influenced by metaphysics and religion. One realm is considered superior, attainable through reason, objective, immutable, eternal, and associated with good and the spiritual. This corresponds to Plato’s world of Ideas, the Christian concept of God, and Kant’s realm of noumena. The other realm, the lower world, is the “apparent world”—subjective,
Read MoreRousseau and Kant: Social Contract and State Foundations
Rousseau’s Philosophy of the Social Contract
Rousseau is the highest representative of the philosophy of the social contract as a form of explanation of the state. He also distinguishes between the state of nature and social status. Contrary to Hobbes, Rousseau believes that man is good by nature, but social life perverts him. Given the impossibility of returning to their natural state, a renewal of the social contract is inevitable. The Social Contract is one of his most influential works.
For Rousseau,
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